Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, Issue #67, January 14, 2007. © by CJEAP and the author(s). Teacher Education Program Admission Criteria and What Beginning Teachers Need to know to be Successful Teachers Catherine E. Casey & Ruth A. Childs, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto Authors’ Note Based on a doctoral thesis by Catherine Casey. Thank you to Claire Alleyne and Michael Charles for assistance in collecting the data and to Andy Anderson, Carol Rolheiser, David Silvernail and Albert W. Taylor for advice and support throughout the study. Teacher Education Program Admission Criteria, and What Beginning Teachers Need to Know to be Successful Teachers The primary goal of teacher education programs is to produce good teachers for elementary and secondary schools (Grant, Adamson, Craig, Marrin, & Squire, 1999; Lewis, Parsad, Carey, Bartfai, Farris, Smerdon, & Greene, 1999). The admission processes for these programs are expected to select applicants who will succeed in the preparatory programs and become good teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Darling-Hammond, Berry, & Thoreson, 2001; Murray, 1986; Turner-Bisset, 2001). However, the relationship of admissions criteria to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes beginning teachers need and to the preparation provided by the programs are rarely made explicit. Across North American universities, a range of admission policies has been established in an attempt to select teacher candidates who can function in the dynamic environment of education. The admissions process should be viewed as a gateway to professional practice, not just a process. As such, it must support the integrity of the teaching profession by ensuring the selection of those individuals who have the potential to become effective teachers. This sounds simple, but requires teacher education programs to first define what it means to be “a good teacher,” particularly a good beginning teacher. What is a Good Teacher? Although there is wide agreement that schools need good teachers, there is little agreement about what it means to be a good teacher (Squires, 1999; Stronge, 2002; Turner-Bisset, 2001). Even the usefulness of the term is disputed, with some researchers choosing instead to focus on effective teaching (Cooper & McIntyre, 1996; Cullingford, 1995; Kyriacou, 1997; Perrott, 1982), creative teaching (Woods & Jeffery, 1996), veteran teachers (Shulman, 1987), quality teachers (Stones, 1992), and good enough teachers (Cullingford, 1995). To further complicate matters, these terms are often used interchangeably and the descriptive criteria differ from study to study (see Table 1). Some jurisdictions have developed descriptions of what is expected of their teachers. For example, in its Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession (1999), the Ontario College of Teachers (OCT) outlines standards for Ontario teachers in five areas: commitment to students and student learning, professional knowledge, teaching practice, leadership and community, and ongoing professional learning. In this article, we propose a framework for examining the relationships between admission criteria and knowledge, skills, and attitudes beginning teachers need. Because both the design of a teacher education program and the admission criteria should begin with an understanding of the qualities beginning teachers will need to be successful in the classroom, we begin with a brief review of that literature. What do Teacher Education Programs Teach? Teacher education programs in North America can be divided into two types: (1) concurrent, where the pre-service teachers enter without a Bachelor’s degree and receive their teacher preparation at the same time as university training in other areas, and (2) consecutive, where applicants must already have a Bachelor’s degree relevant to the subject area in which they intend to teach. The instruction in the consecutive programs focuses on the “how” of teaching – pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical skills (Shulman, 1987), not the “what” to teach and consists of both formal instruction and supervised practice. The instruction in the concurrent programs includes the “what”-that is, content knowledge. Formal instruction in all programs covers general and subject-specific pedagogy (Stronge, 2002). Some programs include explicit instruction intended to affect pre-service teachers’ attitudes, such as openness to learning about cultures other than their own. Supervised practice usually consists of teaching, under the supervision of the classroom’s teacher, often with support and/or supervision from the teacher education program’s faculty (Guyton & McIntyre, 1990). What Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes do Beginning Teachers Need? Assuming that it is possible to develop a definition of a good teacher, should that definition apply equally to veteran teachers and to beginning teachers – that is, teachers who have completed a teacher education program and are in their first year of teaching independently? On the one hand, the students in a class will have the same needs, whether it is the teacher’s first or fifteenth year, suggesting that the same definition should apply. On the other, is it reasonable to expect beginning teachers to meet the definition without several years of on-the-job apprenticeship? Feiman-Nemser (2003) notes that students enrolled in a teacher education program can acquire subject matter knowledge, study the learning process, and grasp the rudiments of approaches to planning, instruction, and assessment. However, she emphasizes that a great mistake is made when new teachers are considered to be finished products that need only to refine learned skills. She explains that new teachers need three to four years to achieve competence, and several more years to reach proficiency. They need time to learn how to teach in a particular context and acquire knowledge about the school community. A study of new teachers in Ontario (OCT, 2003) found that beginning teachers need to learn situationally-relevant approaches to subject matter; how to think on their feet about how to size up situations and decide what to do, and to study the effects of their decisions; and how these will affect their planning. These findings are consistent with suggestions by Ball and Cohen (1999). Although researchers have focused on different aspects of what it means to be a good teacher, four are related to teachers’ needs appear repeatedly in the literature: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical skills, and attitudes.
A belief that they are adequately prepared for independent teaching may also be an important attitude for beginning teachers. Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow (2002) found that “sense of preparedness was by far the strongest predictor of teaching efficacy” (p. 294) and that teacher efficacy is positively correlated with teacher effectiveness, as measured by student learning. Obviously the matter of selection, of inherent qualities, and of the attributes and knowledge that prospective teachers need is complex if not complicated. Thus the question about what teacher education programs can, do, and should teach remains unanswered. What Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes do Applicants to Teacher Education Programs Need? It is important to distinguish which of the knowledge, skills and attitudes that beginning teachers need, can be learned in a teacher education program. Those that cannot be learned in the program must already be possessed by applicants prior to entry into the teacher education program. In addition, there may be characteristics of applicants that, while not directly necessary for beginning teachers, are nonetheless necessary for the pre-service teacher to be able to benefit from the preparation program. Figure 1 illustrates this complex relationship among what beginning teachers need, the preparation a program can provide, and admission criteria for a consecutive teacher education program. The focus of such a program is providing instruction and practice to build pedagogical knowledge and skills, with a lesser focus on content knowledge (Casey, 2005). The expectation is that, at completion of the program, the pre-service teachers will have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to be good beginning teachers (Stronge, 2002). Simply put, the minimum requirements for admission to a teacher education program can be determined by subtracting the preparation provided by the program from the minimum requirements for a good beginning teacher. So, for example, if the teacher education program does not provide preparation in content knowledge, then the applicant must already possess the required content knowledge when he/she begins the program. However, if the program does provide preparation in pedagogical knowledge and skills, then the applicant need only have a readiness to learn those aspects of being a good teacher. Some attitudes (Darling-Hammond, 1997) may be influenced by the program. However, other attitudes, such as sensitivity to religious and cultural differences, may be resistant to change. Figure 1, therefore, shows some attitudes included in the minimum requirements for admission, with some growth expected during the program. The figure, further, acknowledges that growth in all areas is likely to continue after the formal teacher education program. There are several difficulties in applying this model to determine the minimum admission criteria for teacher education programs. The first is the lack of consensus of the requirements for a good beginning teacher. Second, even in a well-established teacher education program, the exact parameters of the preparation made available can be hard to define – for example, is support available for students with weak academic skills or weak language skills?; should special consideration be given to specific cultural groups that may be underrepresented in the teaching profession?; is support available for some students but not others?; is support available, but unlikely to fully compensate for weaknesses in those areas for certain applicants? To complicate matters, there may be disagreement among the instructors in the program as to what support should be available. Third, even if minimum requirements can be defined, they may be difficult to operationalize without the concurrence of the office of the registrar, the Faculty and faculty members and their representative groups, and perhaps the students themselves. In spite of these difficulties, this model provides a useful framework for examining the relationships among the requirements for a beginning teacher, the preparation provided by programs, and the admission criteria for those programs. Before discussing the implications of this model for setting admission requirements, however, we will review the research on admission criteria for teacher education programs. How do Teacher Education Programs Select Among Applicants? Most teacher education programs use students’ grade point average (GPA) as a criterion for admission (Mikotovics & Crehan, 2002; Riggs & Riggs, 1990, 1991). Some programs combine GPA with ratings of a written profile, which requires applicants to describe relevant experiences and why they are interested in teaching (Smith & Pratt, 1996), or with letters of reference (Caskey, Peterson, & Temple, 2001) or with ratings of applicants’ performance in an interview (Denner, Salzman, & Newsome, 2001). In the United States, standardized test results are commonly used. Results from specific pre-requisite education courses also may be utilized. Finally, for applicants intending to become high school teachers, most consecutive programs require university-level coursework in the subject areas to be taught. Table 2 summarizes how these criteria relate to minimum requirements for content knowledge and attitudes and readiness to learn pedagogical knowledge and skills.
The Relationships of the Applicants Selected, Success in the Program, and Good Student and Beginning Teacher Ratings In order to determine whether the applicants selected by teacher education programs go on to succeed as beginning teachers, measures of the preservice teachers’ success teaching independently after completion of the program are needed. However, measures of success – whether focusing on the teacher’s performance or the students’ learning – in independent teaching are difficult for programs to obtain and, where obtainable, may not be reliable or aggregated at the right level (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Wineburg, 2006). As a result, most studies of teacher education program admission criteria have used success in the program itself as indicators of the probability of future success. A few studies have used judgments of preparedness for teaching (Imbimbo & Silvernail, 1999; Silvernail, 1998). Unfortunately, each of these indicators is incomplete. The program’s courses may tap pedagogical knowledge and student teaching performance may indicate pedagogical skills in supervised practice, but neither measures whether the preservice teacher can subsequently apply the knowledge and skills in independent teaching. Judgments of preparedness can include attitudes as well as pedagogical knowledge and skills, but, depending on who provides the judgments, are based on preservice teachers’ self-assessments, their teacher education instructors’ assessments based on observations of coursework and student teaching, or their supervising teachers’ assessments of their student teaching (Casey, 2005). In spite of its limitations, the research examining the relationship of admission criteria with success in teacher education program coursework and student teaching is worth considering. After all, success in a teacher education program is a prerequisite in most jurisdictions for obtaining certification to teach, so such success is in itself important. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume, as many researchers do, that performance in student teaching is related to performance in independent teaching. Finally, the judgments of teacher education instructors and supervising teachers about preservice teachers’ preparedness to teach are based on observations of their student teaching, plus conversations with the preservice teachers that may illuminate their professional attitudes, and, in the case of the instructors, knowledge of their performance in the program’s coursework.
Conclusion Initial teacher education programs need to continually re-evaluate their admission criteria. GPA is most likely to continue to be used, if only as a minimum requirement. Written profiles, however, should be reviewed regularly to be sure they provide opportunities for the applicant to demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are required for entrance into a program. In addition, the way those materials are used in the admission process needs to be carefully evaluated to make sure that each criterion is used in a way that is clearly justified. For example, because of the diversity of the population in Ontario, teacher education programs now want applicants to articulate the knowledge/skills and attitudes they have as a result of experiences with various diverse groups. Perhaps another focus could be applicants’ knowledge/skills and attitudes towards literacy/numeracy across the curriculum. Teacher education programs need to critically examine their admission criteria to make sure that those criteria, along with the preparation they provide, will lead to their graduates being successful beginning teachers. This is not a call for higher admission standards – indeed, it may be that the minimum GPA requirements of some programs are unjustified or that applicants who use educational jargon in their written profiles are unfairly advantaged – but a call for admission criteria that are based on the research about what beginning teachers need and realistic assessments of the preparation teacher education programs can offer. One of the difficulties in doing research on admission criteria is the lack of information about how the pre-service teachers ultimately perform as independent teachers. It is apparent that there is a need for a longitudinal study that follows Teacher Candidates from the time they enter a teacher education program into, at least, the first five years of teaching. A longitudinal study could investigate the following important questions: Are the teachers experiencing success in the first few years of teaching and if so, how is this success measured?; Do Teacher Candidates’/teachers’ ratings of preparedness differ between the end of the teacher education program and the first year of teaching?; and, Are GPA and Profile Grades good predictors of success in teaching? In order to provide Teacher Candidates with consistent feedback on their practice teaching during the teacher education experience, the practice teaching evaluations could be modified to be consistent with current teacher evaluation practices. Consistency of language in the evaluation process, from the practice teaching experience to the actual teaching experience, could provide more clarity and understanding of how individuals are performing in the role of teacher. It would also allow them to see a continuum in terms of their growth as teachers. Additionally, a consistent evaluation process for both Teacher Candidates and independent teachers would provide more consistent data for a longitudinal study on Teacher Candidates/teachers and allow for more accurate comparisons. A more difficult question to address is: Is knowledge of subject matter the most important aspect of teaching (knowledge) or is good teaching more aligned with personality traits and characteristics (skills/attitudes)? These questions need to be addressed by teacher education programs in order to gain valuable insight into the practice teaching experience. This insight could help the administrators of teacher education programs to better manage and set up the practice teaching sessions so that teacher candidates can have experiences that build on the knowledge and skills they already possess. The Importance of Associate Teachers Associate Teaches play a very important role in the development of Teacher Candidates. The practice teaching experiences contribute to the perspectives and insights of beginning teachers. During the practice teaching sessions, Associate Teachers need to provide daily constructive feedback in a supportive and inclusive environment. Associate Teachers are usually exemplary teachers selected by the principal. The assumption made is that, because they are exemplary teachers, they are also excellent at evaluating teaching and giving appropriate, constructive feedback. This assumption is quite possibly made at the expense of the Teacher Candidates. The Associate Teachers are obviously well qualified to teach, but are they qualified to critique Teacher Candidates on their teaching? Further research into this area is paramount, as the practice teaching experience plays such an important role in the teacher education program. Application of Research to Other Groups in Teacher Education Programs It is unknown whether the results of this study are directly applicable to other groups within the educational milieu. Therefore, it would be relevant to collect similar data from Teacher Candidates representative of other I/S (secondary) subject areas, as well as Teacher Candidates from Primary/Junior/Intermediate (elementary) programs. Additionally, it would be prudent to collect data from Teacher Candidates from teacher education programs other than OISE/UT. 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Figure 1. Minimum requirements for admission, growth expected during the teacher education program, and minimum requirements for and growth during independent teaching. Table 1: Descriptive Terms for Teachers
Table 2: Potential Relationships Between Admission Criteria and Minimum Requirements
Note. + weak relationship; ++ strong relationship; * no relationship
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