Comparative Cultural Studies and the Study of Translation:
Concepts and Terminology

1. The concepts and terms for the study of translation listed here are intended to serve as a theoretical framework to be applied in the study of translation. The study of translation has been traditionally a prominent area in comparative literature and thus translation studies is accorded focus in the field of "comparative cultural studies," a field that combines traditional comparative literature with new knowledge in both comparative literature and cultural studies: Comparative cultural studies is a field of study in the humanities and social sciences where tenets of the discipline of comparative literature are merged with the field of cultural studies. In comparative cultural studies the objects of study are culture and culture products including literature, the visual arts, media, performance, ritual, etc., and extending to such areas of culture as the history of communication (e.g., the history of the book, the internet, etc.), pedagogy in the humanities and social sciences, etc. Work in comparative cultural studies is performed in a contextual and relational manner and with a plurality of methods and approaches, in inter-disciplinarity, and, if and when required, in team work. In comparative cultural studies it is the processes of communicative action(s) in culture and the how of these processes that constitute the objectives of research and study. However, comparative cultural studies does not exclude textual analysis proper or other established fields of study (for background work in comparative cultural studies, i.e., theory and examples of application, see Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, "From Comparative Literature Today toward Comparative Cultural Studies." CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture: A WWWeb Journal 1.3 (1999): <http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb99-3/totosy99.html>, Tötösy, Comparative Literature: Theory, Method, Application. Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998. <http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/books/totosy98/>).

2. The following list of concepts and terms for the study of translation represents revisions of the taxonomical work of Nitra School of Translation scholar Anton Popovic's Dictionary for the Analysis of Literary Translation (Edmonton: Department of Comparative Literature, University of Alberta, 1976). The revisions in the Dictionary are based on thought adapted and material added from frameworks in systems and empirical approaches in the study of culture and literature, including translation studies, such as Itamar Even-Zohar's Polysystem Studies Special Issue of Poetics Today 11.1 (1990), André Lefevere's Translating Literature: Practice and Theory in a Comparative Literature Context (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1992), Siegfried J. Schmidt's Foundation for the Empirical Study of Literature: The Components of a Basic Theory (Trans. Robert de Beaugrande. Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 1982), Tötösy's "The Systemic and Empirical Approach to Literature, the Polysystem Theory, and Translation Theory: The Importance of Methodology," Studies in the Humanities 22.1-2 (1995): 12-20. and Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995) (for a bibliography of works of the theoretical background practiced here see Tötösy, "A Selected Bibliography of Works in the Systemic and Empirical, Instititution, and Field Approaches to Literature and Culture," CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture: A WWWeb Journal (Library): <http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/library/sysbib97.html>). Further, the proposal for the application of a theoretical framework and methodology for the study of translation is to be understood as a functional task within the context of (radical) constructivism (for background, see Alex Riegler, Constructivism at <http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/>; see also Tötösy, "Constructivism and Comparative Cultural Studies," CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture: A WWWeb Journal (Library) (2001-): <http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/library/totosy(constructivism).html>).

Concepts and Terms

3. Corresponding to the four categories of cultural production in the systemic and empirical approach, namely 1) producer and product, 2) distribution, 3) reception, and 4) post-production processing, the framework of concepts and terms for the study of translation is as follows (see chapter one in Tötösy, Comparative Literature: Theory, Method, Application [Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998. 13-41], available also online at <http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/books/totosy98/>):

1) TT1 = the text to be translated, 2) TT2 = the translated text, 3) TP1 = the producer of the text to be translated, 4) TP2 = the producer of the translated text, 5) PT1 = the processing of the text to be translated, 6) PT2 = the processing of the translated text, 7) RR1 = the reception and/or receivers of the text to be translated, 8) RR2 = the reception and/or receivers of the translated text, 9) PP1 = the post-production processing of the text to be translated, 10) PP2 = the post-production processing of the translated text

Actualization of Translation
    The TP2's modification(s) of TT1 in relation to the time of the TT1's topic, theme, or action, based on the TP2's perception of the RR2's communicative perspectives of the literary system and/or based on demands PP2's which is, as well, expressed in the RR2's socio-cultural and literary environment.
Adaptation of Translation
    The TP2's modification(s) of TT1 in its self-referential relation to its own topic or theme and its elements, its protagonists, and cultural specificities. The adaptation takes into account selectively or in totality the demands of the four categories of the systemic and empirical framework (producer and product; distribution; reception; and post-production processing).
Adequacy of Translation see Stylistic Equivalence
Archiseme
    The basic functional semiotic unit of primary importance that is realized by various semantic units upon which the meaningful level of the aesthetic (poetic) text is built. In translation, the archiseme is attached to invariant components of TT1, i.e., the archiseme facilitates the transfer of the TT1's deep structure to TT2's semiotic level.
Architext
    The ideal construction of TT1 that serves as a basis for the meta-textual link. The notion of Architext is especially applicable in folklore theory where it may be used to illustrate the process of variation.
Attitude(s) of TP2 towards TT1
    1. Communicative attitude
    The TP2's standpoint while coding and decoding the TT1 message. In the act of literary communication the TP2 participates in decoding the TT1 message, i.e. the process of translation includes an analytical phase (the decoding of TT1) and a synthetic phase (the coding of TT2), together resulting in TT2. The synthetic phase also includes the TP2's effort to achieve a diversified level of literary communication that manifests itself in the text as a dynamic configuration of certain expressive features, i.e., the recoding of cultural, genre, gender, historical, etc., content, expression, and style.
    2. Confrontation of communicative attitudes in translation
    The TP2's consideration of RR2 and/or PP2. This consideration may or may not result in compliance with the expectations of RR2 and/or PP2. The considerations may include expression and/or style.
    3. Ideological attitude
    The TP2's attitude to the ideological and aesthetic/poetic qualities of TT1, reflecting the literary communicative demands of his/her society in toto -- i.e., depending on variables in TT1, the sum of all systemic and empirical approach categories or some but not all categories, as well as her/his own conception of literary communicative interaction.
    4. Stylistic attitude
    TP2's attitude to the stylistic features of TT1. This attitude is a result of influences by the prevailing mechanisms and dialectic of the literary system, as well as by TP2's tendencies towards stylistic features or factors. Three types of this attitude can be distinguished: 1) the zero attitude -- results in a TT2 that is stylistically colourless; 2) the redundant attitude -- means that stylistic characteristics are warranted only in relation to properties of language by the exclusion of aesthetic/poetic characteristics; and 3) a new style is developed by TP2 for TT2.
Auxiliary Model of Translation see Language (Mediating Language in Translation)
Axiology of  Translation
    The formulation of the value of TT2. Value-theory criteria are set by PP1 and/or PP2 for TP2. PP1 and/or PP2 are active in postulating these values through their systemic mechanisms and dialectics. Of importance is the resolution of the tension between the postulates of PP1 and/or PP2 and the aesthetic/poetic expectations of RR2. Three basic mechanisms occur in the validation of TT2 in PP2: 1) criticism aiming at the evaluation of TT2 from the viewpoint(s) of RR2; 2) a comparison of the TT2 with the TT1 by the interrelation of the realization of the intellectual, cultural, historical, etc. and aesthetic/poetic values of TT1 in TT2; and 3) the intellectual, literary historical, cultural, etc., and aesthetic/poetic place of TT2 in the context of RR2.
Codes
    1. Mediating codes in translation see Language (Mediating Language in Translation).
    2. Stylistic code
    Consists of a system of factors serving to generate the expressive structure of the text. It includes the range of basic expressive qualities and the rules of their functioning in TT2.
    3. Dialogue between translator and editor
    Dialogue between the level of aesthetic polyvalence of TP2 and those of the editor. The editor, as part of PT2, embodies values and characteristics  developed and/or prescribed by the publishing institution she/he represents and/or certain cultural policies. Thus, the editor is an executor of literary and linguistic standards for TT2.
Communicative Dimensions in the Process of Translation
    The range of literary communicative possibilities in the process of translation resulting from the fact that the act of translation is a juxtaposition of two literary communicative subsystems: TP1 - TT1 - PT1 - RR1 - PP1 and TP2 - TT2 - PT2 - RR2 - PP2. It is evident that some temporal as well as spatial shifts take place during this systemic literary communicative interaction.
Communicative Situation
    The interaction set up between the communicants of the literary communicative system (TT1 to PP2) during the process of translation.
Context
    1. Confrontational-creative context see Context (Meta-communicational context of translation)
    2. Meta-communicational context of translation
    A secondary literary context allowing the reproduction of invariant features of the TT1 and their modification in the translation on the basis of the functional principle. This functional principle is termed Confrontational-creative context of translation. It involves the capacity of the TT1 to produce a new communicational context of a reproductional and modificational nature.
    3. The overlapping of cultural codes in translation
    The overlapping of cultural codes of TT1 and TT2 in TT2. The overlap functions as an exponent of the two respective cultures.
Copyright and Translation see Translation (Authorized translation)
Cultural Gap(s) in Translation
    Communicative difference(s) between TT1 and TT2. It results from temporal and/or spatial and knowledge-based differences between the cultural/historical context of TT1 and that TT2. The cultural/historical codes of TT1 may or may not coincide in its intensity — most frequently it does not -- with the cultural code realized in TT2. This means a retarded or -- rarely -- an accelerated development of the cultural/historical codes from TT1 into TT2.
Cultural/Historical Codes
    1. "Domestic" cultural/historical codes in translation
Thematic, linguistic, and stylistic elements in TT2 which represent TP2's cultural as well as literary affiliation(s) and also express RR2's preferences and/or prejudices.
    2. "Foreign" cultural/historical codes in translation
    Thematic, linguistic, and stylistic elements in TT1 which are “carriers” of the cultural/historical codes in TT1. These may or may not serve as informative examples of the evolution of the “Domestic” cultural/historical codes.
    3. Cultural/historical code peculiarities
    Elements of the “Domestic” cultural/historical codes realized in TT1. These may or may not be carried into TT2.
Discovery of a New Style in Translation
    The realization of stylistic and semantic invariants of TT1 in TT2 which enrich the domestic style and stylistic tradition with hitherto unknown and/or new elements.
Divergence between the Perception of TT1 and TT2
    Communicative differences resulting from the fact that there are temporal and cultural demarcations between the communication of TT1 and that of TT2 and which are notable for their different communicative qualities.
Domestic Stylistic Superstratum in Translation
    The impact of the expressive conventions of the language of TT1 upon TT2. The measure of this stylistic superstratum is determined by the elaborateness of the conventions of the expressive repertory of the domestic literature and the TP2's expressive idiolect. The stylistic superstratum is identified by RR2 to an extent determined by his/her level of sophistication.
Editor of Translation
    Participant in PT1 and/or PT2 whose measure of participation is relevant to the production of TT2. This means that the editor's implicit or explicit points of view in relation to factors of the literary system, e.g., cultural policy, literary situation, the publisher's demands, etc., are influential to the form and content of TT2. As well, the editor may take part in the selection of TP2.
Equivalence in Translation
    1. Linguistic equivalence in translation
    Homogeneity of elements upon the linguistic (lexical, phonetic, morphological, and syntactic) levels of TT1 and TT2 converge. Homogeneity upon which the linguistic levels are based and which interconnect by determining equivalence at the expressive level of TT1 and TT2.
    2. Paradigmatic equivalence in translation
    Equivalence of the elements of a paradigmatic-expressive axis, upon which the stylistic level is built as a configuration of expressive elements. This equivalence is markedly different from Linguistic equivalence, as it is of a higher category of style.
    3. Stylistic equivalence in translation
    Equivalence of elements in function in both TT1 and TT2, aiming at an expressive identity under invariance of identical meaning.
    4. Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence in translation
    Arrangement of the elements upon the syntagmatic axis of TT1. The axis is conditioned by TP2's levels of expressive feeling, provided there is a freedom of choice of expressive means from the paradigmatic “stock” of style (i.e., the expressive-level configuration).
Exoticism in Translation
    Unusual and non-traditional choice(s) from the thematic and linguistic expressive elements in TT1. This means a choice of elements which are typical of the TT1 culture, while developing an atypical style (thematic and linguistic) for TT2. It also means a stylistic approximation of TT1 to the cultural parameters of TP1 and RR1 into TT2. An extreme application of exoticism has its counterpart in naturalization. Exoticism in translation is foremost a semiotic operation. However, this feature alone would not suffice to distinguish TT1 from TT2.
Experimental Sub-System of TP2 and RR2
    The sum of inherited and individually acquired experience that serves as a background for a semiotic and expressive realization of TT1 into TT2, as well as for RR2.
Expressive Mechanisms in Translation
    1. Expressive configuration
    Systemic arrangement of elementary expressive categories of TT1 upon the basis of semantic oppositions. Expressive configuration is a paradigmatic aspect of style in TT2.
    2. Expressive functionality
    Provided there is a lack of formal correspondence of any elements, TP2 chooses a different element that is in expressive correspondence with the appropriate element from TT1 into TT2. The Expressive functionality of the translation is conditioned by a preservation of the semantic invariant of TT1. This functional principle is realized with certain expressive shifts in the process of choice of expressive alternatives. This means that the functional principle is formally realized only to some or to a limited extent.
    3. Expressive individualization
    Translational transformation intensifying the unique expressive features of TT1, as well as TP2's individual propensities.
    4. Expressive inversion
    The transfer of some elements of TT1 to a different position in TT2.
    5. Expressive leveling
    The removal of unique expressive features of TT1 into TT2.
    6. Expressive lexical identification
    Ascertainment of the expressive value of lexical elements in TT2 by means of a stylistic and semantic interpretation within the framework of the expressive configuration. The stylistic value is ascertained empirically and theoretically at the same time. In practice, Expressive lexical identification means the securing of stylistic affiliation on an intuitive level by TP2.
    7. Expressive line
    The projection of expressive features of TT1 into TT2. The realization of the expressive line is stochastic, although preserving a certain invariant.
    8. Expressive loss
    The impoverishment of the expressive structure of TT1, at times amounting to a complete loss of some expressive elements or lines in TT2.
    9. Expressive structure
    The unique or standardized arrangement of the expressive features upon the basis of the selection that determines the communicative attitude. It is a syntagmatic realization of the style.
    10. Expressive substitution
    The replacement of untranslatable expressive elements of TT1 with elements which approximate these in expressive value in TT2.
    11. Expressive thematization
    The translational transformation stressing the characteristic expressive features of TT1 in TT2.
External-Thematic Configurations in Translation
    The relation of the topical elements in the text to the cultural code that serves as a basis for the translator when choosing suitable equivalents for the cultural peculiarities of the text. They represent the sociocultural framework of the translator's decisions when naturalizing the topic.
Factors of Culture in Translation
    The ratio of elements representing TP1's cultural system to those typical in TP2's cultural system. In semiotic terms, this ratio may be expressed as an opposition of domestic versus foreign factors of the cultural system. These can be realized in TT2 according to TP2's communicative attitude through either approximation or moving away from TT1 (see Exoticism in Translation). This process of decision making is considerably influenced by TP2's cultural system and her/his expressive level.
Free Translation see Overinterpretation in Translation
Function of Translation
    The manner in which a translation is realized with RR2. Also, according to the manner in which the function is realized, the following objectives of translation can be distinguished. However, these objectives may or may not be variably combined:
     1. Informative, i.e., mediation of TT1 in RR2 and TT2 as an object to be received by specific or non-specific RR2.
     2. Socio-cultural, i.e., translation as a factor in the subsystem of literary communication and, in its wider spectrum, in the system of social interactions.
     3. Literary, i.e., translation as a manifestation of communication in the subsystem of literary communication built upon the perceived needs of RR2.
Generic Notion in Translation
    A general notion intended to characterize the universal nature of the translational process, as well as the difference among various types of translation according to their content and stylistic features and objectives (e.g., scientific, religious, literary, oral, written, etc.).
Higher Semantic and Content Synthesis
    The enrichment of the intertextual invariant in its content and semantic layers through a metatextual process. The higher semantic synthesis represents the realization of implicit and potential meanings of the prototext into the metatext and their reverse influence on the prototext. The intertextual process is a transition in the enlargement and deepening of the prototext by the higher content analysis of the prototext and results in an enlargement of its metatext.
Historicization of Translation
    The thematic and linguistic modification of TT2 as a whole or of its various levels. It is motivated by the codes of TT1, but not by anticipation of RR2's points of view.
History of Translation
    The modelling the translation process in a diachronic perspective. The history of translation may be regarded as a component of literary history and, in this sense, as a part of a language's (national or intra- or inter-national) literary history. More specifically, a history of translation should include the elements of A possible model for a history of translation. In this respect, History of translation converges with literary comparison and its constituent literary parts such as aesthetic polyvalence, stylistics, etc.
    1. A possible model for a history of translation:
    A) Preparatory works for a history of translation
    A.1 Bibliographical lists of translations, statistics of manuscript, journal, and book-form translations and their evaluation according to the stratification of literary genres, authors, periods, and literatures.
    A.2 Bio-bibliography of translators and the bibliography of dictionaries of national-language translators. The differentiation of translator activities into TP1 and TP2 when same person and when TP2 is a specialist.
    B) Praxeology of translation:
    External conditions and socio-cultural preconditions of translator activity.
    C) The development of translation methods:
    C.1 The establishment of institutional translator programs
    C.2 The formulation of a system of translation (process and text in the categories of the Systemic and Empirical approach)
    C.3 The writing of histories of translation methods according to specific literary periods
    D) The role and function of translation in the history of literature viewed as a system:
    D.1 Translation in the systemic configurations of TT1, TP1, PT1, RR1, PP1, of TT2, TP2, PT2, RR1, and PP2, and of all possible variables between TT1 to PP1 and TT2 to PP2.
    D.2 Translation in PP1 and PP2 (i.e., metaliterature and literary education)
    D.3 Translation within the parameters of the socio-cultural system of interaction, with focus on the relationship of literature to philosophy, religion, history, etc.
    E) A Typology of national-language translation in particular periods in their comparison with other literatures.
Idiolect (TP2's Idiolect) see TP2's Poetics
Insinuation to RR2s in Translation
    The deliberate choice and introduction of expressive conventions familiar to RR2 in accordance with RR2's poetic choices, aesthetic values, and prejudices.
Interdisciplinary Relations of Translation
    The interdisciplinary complexity of the study of literary translation, representing the participation of related humanistic disciplines in creating theories of literary translation and their metalanguage and taxonomy.
Interpretation (stylistic interpretation in translation)
    The analysis of stylistic means in the translation with respect to the stylistic qualities of TT1. In TT2 it may be realized either intuitively or consciously, depending upon TP2's stylistic competence and theoretical sophistication.
Intertemporal Factor(s) in Translation see Time in the Text of Translation
Intertextuality
    The ability of TP2 to create and/or realize intertextual relations.
Interspatial Factor(s) in Translation
    The difference between TT1 and TT2 resulting from their different socio-cultural backgrounds. The tension between TT1 and TT2 is expressed by the semantic opposition of domestic versus foreign factors. The intensity of this intra- and/or inter-cultural tension is expressed by the coefficient of historical, anthropological, and psychological differences between TT1 and TT2.
Linking
    1. Intertextual continuation
    Relations among texts shaped on the principle of dialectical opposition between affirmativity and controversiality. The assumed condition of intertextual continuation (linking) is the existence of an intertextual invariant, and the result of the continuation (linking) are the shifts which are an accompanying feature of the realization of the invariant in a new text. Continuation (linking) among texts is either a continuation among single texts or a continuation between a single text and a number of texts understood as a whole.
    2. Complimentary continuity (linking)
    Intertextual continuity (linking) with textual supplements (notes, commentaries, prefaces, epilogues, etc.) expounding the invariant qualities of the prototext.
    3. Imitative continuity (linking)
    A continuity (linking) giving the maximum preference to the presence of an intertextual invariant in the metatext; the metatext shapes more clearly its semantic and stylistic resemblance with the prototext in the imitative continuity (linking).
    4. Reducing continuity (linking)
    The relation between two texts which either reduces or extends single levels of the text under the condition of preserving the semantics of the intertextual invariant.
    5. Selective continuation (linking)
    An intertextual relation, when the creation of the metatext is based on the principle of selection of certain elements.
    6. Liquidational continuity (linking)
    A controversial relation to the prototext exhibiting the omission of the text as a whole. Liquidational continuity of one text with another is at the same time the expression of the interpretative standpoint and it can, consequently, serve as recipe directions.
    7. Reproductive continuation (linking)
    A metatextual operation of the literary continuation aimed at the reproduction of the text following the principle of “direct speech,” i.e., quotation, selection of quoted elements of the text or texts (selection of poetry, anthology) following the principle of minimum deviation from the prototext.
    8. Summarizing continuation (linking)
    A metatextual operation of literary education aimed at the reproduction of the text following the principles of “direct speech,” i.e., resuming, summarizing up to the most extreme logical measure of condensation of the text in a bibliographical work.
Instruction for RR2
    The influence on the receiver through the use of a metacommunication system in favour of various codes. Recipe is applied as an instruction or persuading. An instruction system may be realized through literary criticism, history and theory of literature, or the use of specific genres. These components of literary science, in addition to being recipe, fulfil also a modelling cognitive activity. Literary advertisement, for example, represents a specific aspect of the recipe, directed at engaging the receiver for literary metacommunication.
Intertextual Invariant
    The nucleus of meaning common to two or more texts. The intertextual invariant comes into existence on the basis of interliterary continuity (linking). The original invariant of the prototext is shifted during the creation of the metatext. As a result of this process certain qualities of the prototext and the metatext are lost while other qualities are subsequently gained (higher semantic and content synthesis).
Invariability of Meaning in Translation
    The invariant core of a text is represented by stable, basic, and constant semantic elements. Their existence can be demonstrated by semantic condensation. This core of standardized meanings makes TP2's or RR2's concretization, i.e., transformations or variants, possible. These transformations imply changes which do not modify the core of meaning but influence only the expressive form.
Invariant Semantic Core see Semantic Condensation in Translation
Language
    1. Language of translation
    The arrangement of linguistic elements in TT2 with respect to the correspondence on linguistic (phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic) levels between TT1 and TT2.
    2. Mediating language in translation
    Grammatical, lexical, and stylistic sign configuration, serving TP2 as a tertium comparationis. It is a mediating factor upon the thematic and linguistic levels when evaluating the adequacy of the expressive configuration.
    3. Source language
    The language which the literary message is translated from.
    4. Target language
 The language which the message is translated into.
Level (niveau)
    1. Linguistic level (niveau) of translation
    Its acceptability to RR2 in terms of stylistic purity and linguistic correctness.
    2. Literary level (niveau) of translation
    The degree to which the contemporary literary system has been mastered and further developed by TP2.
    3. Socio-cultural level (niveau) of translation
    The potential ability of TP2 to reshape the cultural codes of RR2.
    4. Stylistic level (niveau) of translation
    The degree to which the contemporary stylistic conventions of the RR2's language have been mastered and further developed in TT2.
Linguistic Gratification
    The accidental occurrence of linguistic gratification in TT2. It is understood as the translation of elements in the language of TT1 into TT2, whereby a gratification of two linguistic structures occurs in TT2, i.e., a penetration of TT1's language structure(s) into the language of TT2.
Linguistics of Translation
    An arrangement of the linguistic levels (organized hierarchically and subordinate to the functional principle) in the translation, including phonemic (graphemic), morphemic, lexical, syntagmatic, and syntactic levels. It also includes research of translation from this point of view.
Literary Advertisement
    An activity of metacommunication within the framework of the literary system represented by specific metatexts and paratexts such as prefaces, notices, announcements, publisher's brochures, advertisements in literary journals and magazines, etc. The basic textual sign of metatexts and paratexts of literary advertisements is a semantic affirmition and connected with it are also expressions of affirmation which in reality expose taboos, that is, stylistic orders, prohibitions, and conventions. Literary Advertisement fulfils the function of persuasion in favour of social, economic, and literary codes. The full development of this function in literary advertisement is inhibited by its aiming at TT2, which in turn hinders the application of critical elements in evaluation. Literary advertisement does not take into account the value context of another text, but creates a value for the work ad hoc.
Literary Communication
    Communicational linking in the literary subsystem between TT1 to PP2.
Literary Education
    A system of literary metacommunication, the function of which is to mediate and to supply information about either TT1, TT2, or both and to issue instructions for its/their reception. Literary Education is transmitted by specific texts. The genres of literary education are differentiated into mediating (summarizing, reproductive, and liquidating) advertisements -- not only to present specific aspects, e.g., when a system of genres of a given literary historical period is included in the system of literary education, but also tradition, that is, the memory of the literary system. Literary Education from RR2's point of view represents a state and location of tradition. It is a product of the literary system and at the same time also its new point of departure.
Localization in Translation
    The modification of thematic elements of TT1 into TT2 which refer to the location of the action. Its aim is to accommodate TT2 to RR2's socio-cultural and/or literary background.
Macro-Stylistics in Translation
    The level of higher semantic elements in the text (TT1 and TT2), including sentence, supersentential formations (hypersyntax) and the notion of text as a whole. The text represented by thematic facts (action, time, place, protagonists, composition, etc.).
Measure
    1. Full measure in translation and adequacy of translation see Equivalence
    2. Saturated measure in translation see Overinterpretation in Translation
Metacommunication
    Secondary, derived communication; the function of metacommunication is development or denial of the invariant qualities of the prototext in the secondary, that is, derived text (metatext).
Meta-Creation
    Secondary, derivative literary creation, the impetus for which is to be found in another literary work. It is preceded by metalinguistic (analytical) activity. Meta-Creation in TT2 is a synthesis of TP2's absorption in the text-generating process.
Meta-Linguistic Position of TP2
    TP2's analytical operation that aims at setting up rational criteria for evaluating TT1. Its purpose is to locate the invariant core of TT1 and to evaluate the translation objectively as inter-literary communication. Thus, it acts as the chief influence on TP2's decisions in producing TT2.
Metaliterature
    Secondary, derivative text arising from the relation between texts. Metaliterature in a non-controversial form may also function in a relatively independent way from the viewpoint of RR2 (the knowledge of a prototype need not be assumed; on the contrary, it deliberately replaces the prototext). In literary communication, Metaliterature in its controversial form assumes full knowledge of the prototext. Under certain conditions, Metaliterature may become the source of further development of literature.
Metapoem
    Refers to a derivative literary activity consisting in a modification of the original text.
Metatext
    The model of the prototext; the way of realization of the intertextual invariant between the two texts. The rules of this modelling are the text-formatting activity generated by the creator of metatext:
    A) The principal aspects of the relation between prototext and metatext are the following: semantic, stylistic, axiological, and those associated with TP1's strategy.
    B) The metatext can also be studied in its stylistic aspect according to the degree of homology between the proto- and metatext on the expressive level (affirmative and controversial linking). The stylistic aspect of the metatext is at the same time also an axiological aspect, since it embodies the evaluation of the prototext, as well as its means of expression.
    C) The study of metatext also involves an examination of TP1's strategy in linking his/her metatext to TT1. TT1 may decide either to conceal or to reveal her/his intention to draw on another text. The decision has the character of a style-forming act.
    D) One can also enquire about the textual scope of the contact between proto- and metatext; does it involve only individual elements or levels of the text, or does it refer to the text as a whole?
    E) The next step consists of an examination of the nature of the transformations which the prototext can undergo in the metatext (initiative continuity, selective continuity, reducing continuity and complementary continuity).
    1. Affirmative metatext
    Agreeing, non-polemic continual (linking) metatext. The Affirmative metatext includes all the modes of intertextual continuation (linking) (i.e., imitative, selective, reduction, and complementary transformations). The dialectic element of the Affirmative metatext is represented by its ability to present controversy in a changed context (quotational parody).
    2. Auto-metatext
    The prototext of TT1 which is the work of the same author. Transition of intertextual invariant from the given text to another one within TT1 of TP1 can be represented either by the levels of the text or by the text as a whole.
    3. Controversial metatext
    Negatively, polemically continuing (linking) metatext. The dialectical element of the Controversial metatext is its partial ability to issue information about TT1.
    4. Intentional metatext
    Metatext expressing the primary intention of TT1's subject. When compared with the non-intentional metatext, it does not represent any intention to continuation (linking). The Intentional metatext can represent either the programme on an individual or group basis. The indicator of the origin of the intentional metatext is represented primarily by the relation of the subject to reality, the indicator of the origin of non-intentional metatext is represented by the relation of the subject towards tradition and intertextual practices (accidental elements, allusion without quoting sources, etc.).
    5. Secondary metatext
    Secondary, derived metatext, the “prototext” of which is not the original text, but metatext.
    6. Subject of metatext
    Participation of the communication subject in intertextual continuity. This participation is the expression of TP1's strategy in creating TT1. The subject of the metatext can manifest itself overtly or covertly, affirmatively or controversially, according to given levels of the text. The measure of this participation manifests itself in a dialectic offsetting of affirmative and controversial principles in continuity.
Memory of TP2's Selections
    A "stock" of expressive conventions accumulated by TP2 during her/his activity of translation. The memory of TP2's solution(s) is realized as TP2's expressive habits affect RR2's expectations.
Method of Translation
    Depends upon TP2's individual relation with existing tradition(s) and with the prevailing factors of the literary system and the factors of aesthetic polyvalence, and comprises TP2's work in all its respects.
Microstylistics of Translation
    The expressive arrangement of the lower, linguistic levels of TT2 in the course of translation, from phoneme to sentence.
Model (Stylistic) in Translation
    The reproduction of stylistic features of TT1 in TT2. Basic rules concerning the stylistic disposition of expressive elements, their similarities and differences in the two languages, the degree of TP2's familiarity with them and her/his utilization of these determine her/his stylistic faithfulness.
Model of Comparison in Translation see Mediating Language in Translation
Modernization in Translation
    Thematic and linguistic modification of TT1 as a whole. Modernization in Translation is formulated in accordance with the assumed tastes of RR2.
Neutralization of the Relation of Architext to Metatext
    The weakening of the dependence of the metatext on the prototext, resulting from metatextual variation. As a result of successive-simultaneous metatextual operations the prototext ceases to appear as a concrete point of departure for continuity. The position of the architext can be explained as a summation of concrete variants.
Ontology of/in Translation
    1. Extratextual ontology
    Reality depicted by means of a text.
    2. Textual ontology
    The entering of poetic, social, psychological, and other elements into the text through transformational processes (reflection of reality). In the text these elements are represented by thematic facts and the mastering of a given form.
Operations
    1. Linguistic operation in translation
    The search for and the evaluation of correspondence between the elements of the language of TT1 and those of TT2.
    2. Stylistic operation in translation
    The search for and evaluation of the adequacy and plausibility of the stylistic and expressive features of TT2 which replace the corresponding features of TT1. The “mediating” code of TP2's stylistic operation is a functional arrangement of the basic expressive features of text.
Overinterpretation in Translation
    Tendentious interference by TP2. Usually, thematic and expressive elements are introduced into TT2 which do not exist in TT1. An interpretation of the “deep” structure of the text without taking into account the superficial level. Overinterpretation is characterized by an excessive prominence of the linguistic element of TT2 as well as by distortion of the content.
Poetics of Translation
    1. TP2's formulated poetics
    A set of experiences, opinions, and criteria which have been acquired by TP2 in the course of her/his activities and formulated in a generalized form. The TP2's formulated poetics may be presented in various ways, such as essays, critical articles, etc. It is a part of the theoretical superstructure of the art of translation of a literary historical period, being a component of translational aesthetics. It may be regarded as part of the literary consciousness of its age.
    2. TP2's poetics
    The poetic idiolect, a system of TP2's expressive peculiarities seen from the angle of the current literary system or of the standardized translational method. The elements of this system are individual qualities characteristic of TP2's creative attitude.
Principles of and in Translation
    1. Historicizing principle see Historicization of Translation
    2. Modernizing principle see Modernization of Translation
Process of Translation
    A literary and cultural communicative activity where the recoding from TT1 into TT2 takes place within the literary system. The Process of Translation is realized in phases as a process of decoding and encoding of the message by a process of “mediation.” In literary translation it is the stylistic code that serves as the main factor of mediation. This results in the recoding of the message in TT2 and in its transport to RR2.
Prototext
    A text, an object of intertextual continuity. Every text shows as a rule the ability of intertextual continuity. Realization of this possibility is a matter of the dynamics of the developmental process.
Quasi-metatext
    Following the pretense that the text of one's own making is someone else's translation that then is taken for the “original” work (i.e., the method of pseudonym). The Quasi-metatext as a text is a result of the communication strategy of the TP1 aimed at the exploitation of RR1's expectations of the metatext.
Recoding
    The transfer of a text from one semiotic system into another. If the transfer is interlingual, the recoding is termed translation. The notion of recoding is hierarchically higher than that of translation.
    1. Deep recoding
    A translation upon the deep level of the text that harmonizes with both the deep and the surface structure of TT1. It is also a translation displaying deviations in the surface structure provided the deep structure is transferred in an adequate way into TT2.
    2. Surface recoding
    A translation carried out upon the surface level of TT1 without taking into account the depth structure of TT1 (subinterpretation).
Relative Modernization of and in Translation
    Topical, thematic, and linguistic modifications of TT1 directed at its individual components and not at the text as a whole. These modifications are motivated by semantic and stylistic directives formulated from the RR2's point of view. They are realized by TP2.
Repeatability of Translation
The systemic (historical, readership and literary market, ideological, etc.) viability for the retranslation(s) of a text.
Selection of Text for Translation see TP2's Programme
Semantic Condensation in Translation
    A gradual formalization of semantic segments in TT2 which makes it possible to arrive at the basic invariant of the text.
Semantic Invariant of TT1 and TT2
    The semantic identity of elements in TT1 and TT2.
Semantic and Stylistic Instructions in TT1
    Structural features of TT1 resulting from the conventional and unique arrangement of literary communicative syntagmatics (literary parole [utterance]) that are obligatory for TP2's creation.
Semiotics of Translation
    The semiotic nature of the translation process. Translation is, in relation to TP2's literary activity, a derivative, secondary activity. It is a metacommunicative act in relation to RR2. The semiotic aspect in translation is concerned with the differences encountered within the process of translation which are a consequence of a different temporal and spatial realization of TT2.
Shift
    1. Constitutive shift in translation
    An inevitable shift that takes place in translation as a consequence of differences between the two languages, the two poetics, and the two styles of TT1 and TT2.
    2. Generic shift
    A type of thematic shift implying a change in constitutive features of the text as a literary genre. The generic shift usually takes place on the level of the text's macrostylistics and is accompanied by microstylistic shifts in the translation. The generic shift is characterized by various types of translational versions.
    3. Individual shift
 A system of individual deviations motivated by TP2's expressive propensities and her/his subjective idiolect.
    4. Negative shift
    An incorrect solution of information caused by a misunderstanding of the translation. It may be motivated by unfamiliarity with the language or by a superficial interpretation of the TT1's structure. The negative shift may be characterized in TT2 as a “mistranslation” (subinterpretation) of the TT1 (a neglect of the deep structure of the topic).
    5. Thematic shift
    A difference between the thematic facts of TT1 and TT2 which appears as a consequence of using different denotations. Favouring connotation to the detriment of denotation in the translation.
Sociology of Translation
    Exploration of the genesis and functioning of translation within the system of communicative interaction. This branch of sociology is interested in translation as a manifestation of social communication. It explores translation as a fact of social and cultural consciousness within the scope and environments of institutions (publishing policy, cultural interrelations, etc.), individuals, and practices.
Structural Typology of Translation
    The classification of translation in terms of the stratification of text levels upon which the translation has been realized. A literary translation is not only realized upon a single text level but encroaches upon other levels as well. This means the exploration of translation according to the linguistic levels realized in the translation and as a heuristic phase in the investigation of translation.
Style
    A unique and standardized dynamic configuration of expressive features in the text, represented by thematic and linguistic means. This configuration of expressive features depends on TP2's communicative attitude. The paradigmatic aspect of style is an expressive configuration while the syntagmatic aspect is represented by a specific arrangement of style in the text.
    1. Individual style
    An expressive arrangement of the text motivated by the expressive propensities of the originator of the literary communication (translation).
    2. Style of a literary historical period
    An expressive arrangement of the text in accordance with the contemporary factors of the literary system such as stylistic conventions, expectations, and habits of RR2. With respect to the literary canon each text exerts an influence upon the literary conventions; it may change the literary canon and thus the expressive stylistic standard of that period.
    3. Style in translation
    A relation of the stylistic arrangement of elements in TT1 to their stylistic counterpart in TT2 and their arrangement in TT1 without regard to linguistic and thematic correspondences.
Stylistics (see also Expressive Mechanisms in Translation)
    1. Stylistic affiliation of a word
    The expressive affiliation of a lexical unit into a stylistic layer according to its stylistic nature.
    2. Stylistic borrowing (calque) in translation
    Borrowing of ready-made expressive schemes from TT1 into TT2 where they are, as a rule, absent. This borrowing may occur either on the macro- or the microstylistic level.
Sub-Interpretation in Translation
    A partially realized measure of assembling TT2, provided no stylistic recoding is performed upon all the required levels of TT1. An interpretation of the text surface structure without taking into account its deep structure.
Substitution of Thematic Elements in Translation
    A replacement of idiomatic and/or untranslatable elements of TT1 with elements that are available to TP2.
Synchronic Viewpoint in Translation
    The considering of the translation within the framework of the literary system in which it was produced.
Systemic Inclusion of Translation
    Refers to the theoretical and methodological perspective of the history and development of literature. It means the realization of the possible range of relationships of TT1 to PP2. Systemic Inclusion of Translation can be also demonstrated by the intersection of the internal developments of translation -- the communicative interaction of TT1 with TT2 with the sum of configurations involving TP1 to PP2 -- with historical polyvalent aesthetics in a research model for a history of translation.
Tendentious Transcription
    A metatextual operation of literary education realized on the principle of reproductive relation to the prototext. Tendentious transcription is a maximally similar model to the protopattern, which can have various degrees, such as the document of the prototext, its transcription, and the adaptation of the prototext.
Time in the Text of Translation
    A communicative temporal dimension in translation resulting from the fact that there is a temporal gap between the creation of TT1 and that of TT2. The temporal aspect is projected into TT2 on two basic levels: 1) on the level of the material substrate (grammatical tense) and 2) on the level of semiotic functions of the text (time as a cultural phenomenon). TP2 is concerned especially with the latter temporal dimension which represents its deep structure dimension in the text. In translation, this dimension is manifested through approximating the original time (historicization) or through its withdrawing (modernization), which depends on TP2's communicative attitude.
Topic and Composition of Translation
    A higher level of the text and its arrangement in TT2.
Theme in Translation
    The realization of cultural codes in TT2. Thematic text elements and composition usually pass from TT1 into TT2 without considerable changes. However, if such shifts occur, they are determined by socio-physical differences between the literary systems of TT1 and TT2, as well as by TP2's effort to saturate interests of taste (thematic adaptation, localization, and actualization).
Tradition
    The subsystem of Tradition includes A) Affirmation (a mechanism of abstract intertextual relations where these are realized by means of selection and arrangement in a given period) and B) Contrariness (mechanisms such as the restoring of lost or missing texts, the discovery of a new text, the delayed or precocious developmental realization of a text, the destruction of a text, the discarding of text, etc., occurs).
    A) Affirmation
    1. Calquing of texts
    Intertextual continuity (linking) with maximum overlapping of the invariant of prototext and metatext. The tendentious transcription of texts is of this kind, i.e., maximum similarity of the models with slight shifting in the metatext (the change of technique, material, etc.). Calquing occurs, for example, when the architectonic reconstruction of cities and destroyed monuments is discussed, thus bringing together the spatial and plastic qualities and components of a modern structure with the original character of architectonic composition, including the copying of style. Calquing is partially involved when new structures are incorporated into a historical whole. The Calquing of texts can either occur only once with closed developmental tendency, or, it can provoke a whole series in continuity (linking).
    2. Conformity in continuity (linking)
    The way of accordant, i.e., non-polemic continuity (linking), in which the intertextual invariant is not disturbed.
    3. Covert continuity
    The strategy of the translator in creating the metatext without explicit reference to the prototext. The deliberate concealment of relations with the prototext has its stylistic aspect in the increased idio- and/or socio-variability of the text.
    4. Destruction of text
 The change of the original functions of the structural elements of the prototext within the metatext; this change can take place through the deformation of some of the original elements of the text or the whole body of the text. The formation of the oppositions of meaning and expression between prototext and metatext can be realized by preserving the original elements though in a different context, and their destruction can be subsequently effected.
    5. Discarding of text
    The blocking of intertextual continuity in view of a certain type of text. This blocking takes place as a rule in creating a new developmental structure, and gradually assumes a normative character.
    6. Discovery of new text
    The incorporation of a text taken over from one in another system into systemic order (relations between literatures, between high art and low art) under the assumption that the TT2 fulfils an innovative role from the point of view of the development of art.
    7. Innovation of declined or surpassed structure
    The emphasizing and including of texts into a newly created aesthetic structure; the texts or the elements of texts previously surmounted or relegated to the periphery are innovated from the point of view of the ascending structure; and such texts should contain stimuli for further development.
    8. Introduction of texts without a development perspective
    Introduction of texts of surpassed aesthetic structure at the expense of the creative or stabilized canon, which from the developmental standpoint represents a newer quality.
    9. Montage
    The realization of a number of metatextual elements within one metatext. The original elements gain semantic and stylistic homogeneity in the new structure. Different periods approach the principle of montage and deal with its technique in comparatively different ways. Certain schools either “prefer” this technique or “suppress” it. Classicism: more difficult conditions for montage, avoiding any confrontation of foreign elements or absolutization of partial moments, settlement, minimum of phonic contrasts and contrasts of meaning; Romanticism: preference for montage in the ontology of time and space; Realism: limitation of the possibilities for non-interrupted existence of different elements, positivistic principles on similarity and continuity, on contextuality and the constancy of separate orders of reality; Symbolism: Orientation towards inner, concealed meanings, emphasis on the search for polysemy of denomination, non-conventional combinations.
    10. Non-conformity in continuity
 Ways of continuity utilizing a controversial type of metatextual operations (discarding of a text, destruction of a text, etc.).
    11. Precocious developmental realization of text
 The introduction of a text which does not correspond to dominant aesthetic systems of norms and conventions. The precocious developmental realization of a text occurs when there is a construction of reception presuppositions for the receiver. There may occur an agreement between the delayed introduction of a text, when the delayed text contains stimuli for changes from the developmental structure to a structure of higher quality.
    B) Contrariness
    1. Reconstruction of texts
    Intertextual continuity developing the intertextual invariant in terms of stylistically related structural methods or sometimes, on the contrary, on the basis of conflicting methods.
    2. Restoring of lost or missing text
    The modelling of the developmental process of art through the substitution of lost or missing texts. Such a substitution has, as a rule, objective presuppositions, depending on the literary system of a given period. If the substitution of texts in the process of development relates to texts which have not been preserved, then we speak of true substitution: a given metatext becomes a model of non-existing texts. False substitution involves texts when the forged texts are presented as originals. They become the quasi-metatext of non-existing prototexts.
    3. Syntagmatic aspect of tradition
    The arrangement and application of intertextual relations in a literary system against the background of the repertory of intertextual relations. The configuration of intertextual relations at a given period of development has a normative character. Every text by its existence falls into this system in a certain way (affirmatively, controversially, or dialectically) and, in turn, any text becomes an individual, unique, and unrepeatable projection of this system.
    4. Translation of scheme and its reshaping
    The transformational process preserving the basic invariant of the thematic or composition levels of text. Such a scheme can be enriched or impoverished by transition from one developmental context to another.
Transformation in Translation
    A modification of language, theme, and style in TT2 through a violation of the equivalence principle.
Translatability
    The possibility of a structural and literary or a functional and semantic, as well as expressive, replacement of the linguistic elements of TT1 with those in TT2. The functional replacement is achieved in TT2 by means of expressive shifts.
Translation
    The recoding of a text during which its stylistic model is constructed. Translation is a stylistic (thematic and linguistic) model of TT1, and it is in this sense that the translational activity is an experimental creation.
    1. Authorized translation
    The translation of an original work into another language by TP1. Owing to its modelling relation to TT1, auto-translation cannot be regarded as a variant of TT1, but as a true translation. This follows from a change of the axiological as well as the stylistic and linguistic fields into which TT1 enters. A further systemic factor of Authorized translation is the legal process, e.g., copyright.
    2. Compilatory translation
    TT2 realized upon the basis of several translations.
    3. Concealed translation
    Transformations of the appropriate segments of TT1 while certain elements remain untranslated. In such a case the full realization of the translation does not take place. On the contrary, its incomplete as well as fragmentary nature is utilized functionally in order to activize the appropriate literary structure.
    4. Consecutive translation
    Oral translation performed not simultaneously, but after each sentence or paragraph.
    5. Direct (primary) translation
    A translation realized upon the direct manipulation of TT1 by TP2.
    6. Fictitious translation
    An author may publish his/her original work as a fictitious translation in order to attract readers and to realize her/his own literary programme and thus it is subjectively motivated. In text theory, fictitious translation may be defined as quasi-metatext, i.e., a text that is to be accepted as a metatext.
    7. Intersemiotic translation
    A translation realized between two semiotic systems. This involves intersemiotic transformation, e.g., from the language of literature into that of film, or from the language of fine arts into that of music, etc.
    8. Intralingual translation
    Transformations of the text or its elements within the framework of one linguistic system. It takes place upon the level of semantic synonymity (e.g., explanations in the text, notes, etc.).
    9. Intraliterary translation
    A translation realized within the same literature, usually from an older phase of literature into a new one. Intraliterary translation is a replacement of the linguistic, stylistic, and semiotic levels of TT1. From the point of view of the text-generating operations, there is distinction to be made between a tendentious transcription and a translation. The pragmatic motivation of Intraliterary translation is to be sought in the communicative needs of literary texts as well as in the relationship of contemporary literature to the heritage of preceding literary periods.
    10. Literal translation
    A translation of linguistic meanings in TT1 provided that the possible stylistic equivalents are individuated. Literal translation is a result of preparatory metalinguistic (philological) activity and serves as a basis for TP2's creative activity.
    11. Machine translation
    A translation made electronically with the use of artificial intelligence. A programmed isomorphism of the lexical elements in the linguistic systems of TT1 and TT2.
    12. Phonemic translation
    A translation realized dominantly on the phonemic level of the text.
    13. Polemical translation
    Intentional translation in which TP2's operations are directed against another translator's operations that are representative of a different or antagonistic conception (translation); TP2's operations are intended to unmask certain expressive or other topical tendencies in another translator's conception (or in that of TP1's ). The polemical translation is an affirmative-controversial metatext.
    14. Pseudotranslation see Fictitious translation (6. above)
    15. Secondary translation
    Translational communication through the adoption of other translations. The communicative channel of Secondary translation as a rule leads through literatures that are linguistically close.
    16. Sequential translation
    A translation realized dominantly upon the sentence level, thus not achieving translational coherence. It may result in Substandard translation.
    17. Simultaneous translation
    Oral translation carried out simultaneously in time.
    18. Straightforward translation
    A transparent translation in which elements of the linguistic and thematic levels are replaced in a linear way, without taking into account their expressive values.
19. Substandard translation
    A translation characterized by a disregard for literary recoding from TT1 into TT2. On the textual level, Substandard translation is manifested by subinterpretation, i.e., by the misunderstanding of ideological and aesthetic features of TT1, by a negative shift of expressive features from TT1 into TT2, or by an expressive levelling of TT2. From RR2's point of view, Substandard translation may cause a block of communicative channels, a depreciation and/or disqualification of TT1 and/or TP1.
    20. Synchronic translation
    A contemporary translation of a contemporary text.
    21. Textual translation
    A full translation in which TT1 as a whole is subordinated to the translational process.
    22. Verbal translation
    A translation realized dominantly upon the lexical level of the text.
Translationality
    A communicative relationship in the literary system between TP1 and RR2 who may or may not be aware that the literary communicate has been translated from TT1. Translationality is a semiotic characteristic between TT1 and TT2 through to PP2.
TP2 (The Producer of the Translated Text)
    The communicant in the literary system who acts out the complex role of an interpreter of the information embedded in TT1. She/he is TT1's decoder, encoder as well its expedient into TT2.
    1. TP2's decision see TP2's process of decision
    2. TP2's expressive typology
    A classification of TP2's types in terms of their relations to complex stylistic values of TT1.
    3. TP2's process of decision
    A possibility of choice, preference, or rejection of expressive features during the act of creating the translational communicative upon the background of an expressive repertory realized by the translator. The possibility of choice of the expressive features is determined by TP2's expressive feeling and by the communicative situation in the literary system.
    4. TP2's programme
    TP2's selection of TT1. Usually, the selection corresponds to prevailing literary, cultural, and social standards or it coincides with the ideological and aesthetic tendencies of the literary system of TP2. The TP2's programme may either be ahead of the generally accepted canon or behind it. This is a result of TP2's individual taste. The TP2's programme is generally a result of factors active in the literary system, i.e. TT1 to PP2.
    5. TP2's subject
    A communication participant mediating TT1 to linguistically unprepared RR2s. The TP2's subject is projected into TT2 as a textual subject. It is realized as TP2's idiolect in the respective configuration of expressive shifts. The latter represents the TP2's poetics and is a correlate of the lyrical subject of TP1.
    6. TP2's system of deviations
    A system of expressive shifts linked with TP2's expressive feeling. This may be also defined as TP2's poetics.
Translation Theory
    A discipline engaged in the systematic study of translation. Its task consists of modelling the translational process and text and it may include implicit or explicit methodology.
Typology of Expressive Changes in Translation
    A classification of expressive shifts according to the levels of micro- and macrostylistics of the translation. The classification is based on the stylistic unity of the elements of a work of art.
Types of Translation
    The classification of translations according to their realization of type and function (e.g., scientific, literary, religious, legal, etc.).
Untranslatability
    A situation in which the linguistic elements of TT1 cannot be replaced or encoded adequately in structural, linear, functional, or semantic terms as a consequence of a lack of denotation and connotation in the language of TT2.
Value of Translation
    1. Actual value of translation see Axiology of Translation
    2. Evolutionary value of translation
    The diachronic parameters of translation.
    3. Expressive value of translation
    The sum of expressive qualities of TT2. The Expressive value of translation may be realized, with respect to TT1, on the basis of a systematic arrangement of expressive qualities in the expressive configuration and upon their realization in TT2. The expressive value of a text determines the style of translation as an organized set of invariant and variant elements.

[Earlier versions "Comparative Cultural Studies and the Study of Translation: Concepts and Terminology" appeared in print as follows. 1) Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, "Towards a Taxonomy for the Study of Translation." Meta: Journal des traducteurs / Translators' Journal 40.3 (1995): 421-44. and 2) Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, "The Study of Translation and Comparative Literature." Comparative Literature: Theory, Method, Application. By Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek. Amsterdam-Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998. 215-48.]