Woman Abuse
What is Woman Abuse?
The term woman abuse refers to various forms of violence,
abuse, mistreatment and neglect that women experience in their intimate,
kin or dependent relationships. These include current, dissolving
or past relationships with husbands, common-law partners, lovers,
dating partners, family members and caregivers.
Many terms have been used to describe the abuse of women within
relationships, including wife abuse, wife assault,
wife battering, spouse abuse, and partner abuse.
Recently, activists within the shelter movement have begun to use
the more inclusive term woman abuse or woman battering.1
Some authors use the term woman abuse to refer to various
forms of violence against women, including wife abuse, premarital
woman abuse, rape and sexual assault.2 The term intimate
partner violence has also been used.3 Some terms
do not specify whether the abuser is a man or a woman. In fact,
although a woman may be abused by another woman, it is generally
accepted by front-line workers that she is most likely to be abused
by a man.4
Any womanregardless of her age, race, ethnicity, education,
cultural identity, socioeconomic status, occupation, religion, sexual
orientation, physical or mental abilities, or personalitymay
experience abuse. A woman may be at risk of abuse at virtually any
point in her lifefrom childhood to old age. Girl children
who are abused or who witness abuse against their mothers may be
particularly vulnerable to being abused as they grow into young
women. Women who are in their childbearing years may experience
abuse that is linked to, and may have consequences for, their reproductive
health. As women grow older, they may continue to be abused, either
in their homes or in other residential settings.
Women who are abused may experience more than one type of aggression.
Typically, abusive partners attempt to dominate and control by engaging
in actions that threaten or harm a womans physical and emotional
well-being, sexuality, social life, parenting ability, financial
situation, possessions or spiritual life.5 A woman may
experience a single episode of abuse, or she may endure a pattern
of abuse over many years.
Physical abuse may include assaults involving beating,
burning, slapping, choking, kicking, pushing, biting or a weapon.
It may also include physical neglect through denial of food or medication,
inappropriate personal or medical care, rough handling, or confinement.
Physical abuse and neglect can result in serious injuries or death.
Assault is against the law in Canada.
Emotional or psychological abuse may include constant yelling,
screaming, name calling, insults, threats, humiliation or criticism,
excessive jealousy or suspiciousness, threatening or harassing a
woman (or her children, family members, friends or pets), isolating
a woman from neighbours, friends or family, or depriving a woman
of love and affection. For some women, the effects of emotional
abuse may be worse than the consequences of physical violence.
Women who are emotionally abused are at high risk for experiencing
physical violence.6 Stalking or threatening another person
(criminal harassment) and willfully destroying or damaging another
persons property are against the law in Canada.
Sexual abuse may include rape (sexual assault), unwanted
sexual touching, sexual harassment, sexual exploitation, or forcing
a woman to participate in any unwanted, unsafe, degrading or offensive
sexual activity. Sexual abuse may also include denying or ridiculing
a womans sexuality or controlling her reproductive choices.
The practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) of girls has serious
consequences for young adult women, especially during the childbearing
years.7 Sexual assault and sexual exploitation are against
the law in Canada.
Economic or financial abuse may include preventing a woman
from working, controlling her occupational choices, preventing her
from achieving or maintaining financial independence, denying or
controlling her access to financial resources, or exploiting her
financially. Failing to provide the necessities of life to a spouse
or dependent is against the law in Canada.
Spiritual abuse may include preventing a woman from participating
in spiritual or religious practices, ridiculing her beliefs, or
using spiritual beliefs to justify controlling her.
How Widespread is Woman Abuse in Canada?
Every year, hundreds of women in Canada are seriously injured
or killed as a result of physical violence inflicted on them by
their partners. According to police reports for 1999, 523 women
suffered major physical injuries or died at the hands of their husbands
or common-law partners. This figure is five times higher than the
number of men (100) who experienced major physical injuries or death
at the hands of their spouse in the same time period.8
Yet, research indicates that many cases of abuse are not reported
to police.9
Victim surveys directly ask people about their experiences of
abuse. These surveys provide a fulleralbeit not complete10picture
of the extent and nature of woman abuse. The 1993 Violence Against
Women Survey (VAWS) was the first such survey to provide national
information on womens experience of violence in Canada. Since
then, the 1999 General Social Survey (GSS) on Victimization asked
almost 26,000 women and men in Canada about their experiences of
violence at the hands of their current or previous spouses or common-law
partners.11 According to the 1999 GSS survey, 8 percent
of women
and 7 percent of men experienced some type of violenceranging
from threats to sexual assault in their intimate relationships
during the five years covered by the survey.12 The survey
also found that the violence experienced by women tended to be more
severeand more often repeatedthan the violence directed
at men.
Compared with men, women were
- six times more likely to report being sexually assaulted;
- five times more likely to report being choked;
- five times more likely to require medical attention as a result
of an assault;
- three times more likely to be physically injured by an assault;
- more than twice as likely to report being beaten;
- almost twice as likely to report being threatened with a gun
or knife, or having a gun or knife used against them;
- much more likely to fear for their lives, or be afraid for their
children as a result of the violence;
- more likely to have sleeping problems, suffer depression or
anxiety attacks, or have lowered self-esteem as a result of being
abused; and
- more likely to report repeated victimizations.13
Also, women experience a greater degree of certain types of emotional
abuse.
Compared with men, women
- were four times more likely to report being threatened or harmed,
or having someone close to them threatened or harmed;
- were four times more likely to report being denied access to
family income;
- were more than twice as likely to report having their property
damaged or their possessions destroyed;
- reported a higher incidence of being isolated from family and
friends; and
- reported a higher rate of name calling and put downs.14
Clearly, physical and emotional abuse is a common experience for
women in Canada. Given the widespread nature of this problem, woman
abuse is not a private concern for individuals and familiesit
is a serious and urgent societal issue.
What Causes Woman Abuse?
There are many theoriesand differences of opinionabout
what causes woman abuse, but there is no single, definitive explanation.
For many experts, however, the long-standing power imbalance between
men and women in society continues to be a central factor. These
experts link the mistreatment and abuse of women to the social and
economic reality
of womens livesthe web of discriminatory attitudes,
values, behaviours, structures and institutions that undermine,
isolate and marginalize women.15
There is growing understanding of how the effects of dislocation,16
colonization,17 racism,18 homophobia,19
poverty,20 and isolation21 further increase
womens vulnerability to abuse.
Regardless of the cause, the use of violence is unacceptable in
any circumstance. Everyone has a responsibility to end violence
and learn how to develop healthy relationships.
Factors that Increase Risk
Any woman, regardless of her life circumstances, may experience
abuse. But statistics have identified factors that can increase,
either directly or indirectly, a womans vulnerability to being
abused in her relationship. These risk factors are not necessarily
direct causes of abuse, but they are associated with
violence, and increase the likelihood of violence.22
Multiple factors create an even higher risk. Risk factor information
highlights how specific circumstances in womens lives can
increase their vulnerability to abuse.
Some of the factors that increase a womans vulnerability
to abuse include being young (18-24), elderly (65 or older), disabled
or Aboriginal. The risk is also increased when a woman was victimized
in childhood or exposed to violence against her mother. Pregnancy
is also a risk factor for being abused.23
Women younger than 25 years of age are at higher risk than other
women of experiencing violence in their relationships.24
These women are also at higher risk than others of being killed
by their current or ex-husbands or common-law partners.25
Women with disabilities are estimated to be 1.5 to 10 times more
likely to be abused than are non-disabled women, depending on whether
or not they live in a community or institutional setting.26
Abuse against women with disabilities includes a wide range of behaviours
that women who are not disabled may not experience. For example,
women with disabilities often have to rely on others to help them
with mobility, toileting, eating, bathing or other daily tasks.
This dependence requires quite intimate relationships with a wide
range of others, including partners, caregivers, health professionals,
transportation providers and other family members. Dependence on
a large network of relationships increases the chances that a woman
who is disabled will experience abuse.27
Research has shown that First Nations and Inuit women experience
very high rates of violence. In one Ontario study, 8 out of 10 Aboriginal
women had experienced violence in their relation-
ships. Of these, 87 percent were physically injured, and 57 percent
were sexually abused.28 An estimated 75 to 90 percent
of women in some northern Aboriginal communities have been physically
abused.29
Relationship factors may also increase a womans vulnerability
to abuse. For example, she is more likely to experience abuse if
her partner is young (18-24),30 is unemployed (long term),30
has little formal education,30 is a heavy drinker,31
or was exposed to violence against his mother.32 Women
in common-law relationships are at higher risk of abuse than women
who are married.33 The presence of weapons in the home
is associated with lethal violence.34 When a woman either
threatens to leave or leaves her partner she faces an increased
risk of being further victimized or even killed.35 Her
desire to leave the relationship may pose a serious challenge to
her partners desire for control, and the partner may respond
by intensifying the violence or murdering her.
What are the Consequences of Woman Abuse?
For Abused Women
Being abused may undermine virtually every aspect of a womans
lifeher physical and mental health (see Health Consequences
of Woman Abuse, below), her ability to work, her relationships with
children, family members and friends, her self-efficacy and her
fundamental sense of self-worth. Sometimes her attempts to cope
with abuse, for example, through the use of drugs or alcohol, create
additional problems. In some cases, women are eventually killed
by their abusive partners.
Health Consequences of Woman Abuse36
Physical health effects include broken bones, bruises,
burns, cuts, stabs and firearm wounds, abrasions, bites, lacerations,
sprains, concussions, skull fractures, scarring, perforated eardrums,
detached retina, injuries to the voice box, chipped or lost teeth,
hair loss, chronic gastro-intestinal pain, irritable bowel syndrome,
chronic neck, back or other musculoskeletal pain, chronic headache,
hypertension, palpitations, hyperventilation, and substance abuse
problems. Pregnant women who are abused experience direct and indirect
impacts, which can result in serious complications for the mother,
fetus and, later, infant.37
Sexual health effects include sexually transmitted diseases,
including HIV, chronic pelvic, genital or uterine pain, chronic
vaginal or urinary infection, bruising or tearing of the vagina
or anus, frequent pregnancy (when unwanted or contraindicated),
infertility or early hysterectomy, and sexually addictive behaviour.
There are also physical and psychological consequences of the practice
of Female Genital Mutilation.38
Psychological effects include low self-esteem,
self-degradation, self-abuse, difficulty with relationships, acute
anxiety, frequent crying, unusual or pronounced fear responses,
uncontrolled or rapid anger responses, chronic stress, phobias,
flashbacks, insomnia, sleep disturbances, nightmares, lack of appropriate
boundaries, arrested development, passivity, memory loss, loss of
concentration and productivity.
Psychiatric effects include depression, suicidal
thoughts, dissociation, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, eating disorders,
adjustment disorder with depressed mood, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.
Although abuse can have devastating effects on women,
the impacts are often not seen or identified. Many professionals
and service providers who work with women now recognize that they
have a responsibility to educate themselves about potential indicators
of abuse, and to routinely ask all women about their experiences
of abuse.
The impacts of abuse extend well beyond women,
to others.
For Children Exposed to Violence
The 1999 General Social Survey found that children
heard or witnessed a parent being assaulted in approximately 37
percent (461,000) of spousal violence cases in the five-year period
measured by the survey. Children were more likely to be exposed
to violence against their mothers than against their fathers, and
were most likely to witness or hear serious assaults on their mothers.39
Children who are exposed to violence against their motherseven
infants and very young childrenmay be seriously affected.
Exposure to violence against their mothers can undermine childrens
emotional development, and cause serious behaviour problems and
difficulties in school.40 The emotional and behavioural
effects may be similar to those experienced by children who are
themselves being physically abused.41
For Abusers
Professionals note that men who abuse their partners may experience
anger, denial, emotional problems, rejection and isolation. Factors
such as abuse during childhood, witnessing abuse as children,42
the use of drugs or alcohol, involvement in the criminal justice
system or other negative experiences, compound the abuse. Abusers
are responsible for their behaviour, and for the devastating effects
it has on their partners and children. Abusers are also responsible
for the harm they do to themselves. Some abusive partners eventually
kill their partners and children and commit suicide.
Costs to Society
Research has shown that, each year, woman abuse costs billions
of dollars in
Canada. The first-ever estimate of the costs associated with woman
abuse (and some other forms of violence against women) came to at
least $4.2 billion per year in social services, education, criminal
justice, labour, employment, health and medical costs.43
Woman abuseand all forms of gender-based violencehas
wide-ranging consequences for womens health and for the health
system.44 The health-related costs of woman abuse have
been estimated at more than $1.5 billion per year. This includes
the costs of immediate medical attention and dental treatment, lost
time at work (paid and unpaid), long-term medical treatment, psychiatric
hospital stays (all types), use of transition homes and crisis centres,
and other prevention and treatment initiatives.45
As the study Selected Estimates of the Costs of Violence
Against Women indicates, these estimates provide important
information, but they are only part of the picture.46
There are many costs related to woman abuse that have yet to be
calculated.
What Barriers do Women Experiencewhen Disclosing Abuse,
Seeking Support and Making Choices?
A woman who is being abused must make many, often very difficult,
decisions about how best to protect herself, her children and others
who are important in her life.
She must determine when and where it is safe to tell someone she
is being abused. She must decide when and where to seek support,
and how best to use whatever services and supports are available
to her to increase her safety and improve her situation.
Meanwhile, her options for obtaining support and ending the abuse
are frequently limited by her personal and social circumstances.
For some groups of women in Canadaincluding First Nations
and Inuit women, immigrant and refugee women, women with disabilities,
women in rural and remote communities, lesbian women and othersexperiences
of discrimination, racism, poverty, and social and geographic isolation
create additional barriers. These women often must deal not only
with the consequences of being abused but also with the effects
of their marginalized position in society, and the reality of limited
services.
Some of the barriers that a woman may encounter include the following:47
- Emotional attachment to the abuser. The woman may love
the abuser and hope that the relationship will improve. She may
minimize or deny that the abuse is happening. She may believe
she is at fault and is the one who should change. She may believe
abuse is normal because she grew up watching her mother being
abused or
was abused herself. She may have strong beliefs about the importance
of keeping her relationship and family together, which may prevent
her from leaving. She may not want to take her children away from
their other parent or their home. She may be pressured by family,
friends or others in the community to stay with the abuser. She
may feel ashamed of her abuser and of herself.
- Fear. The abuser may have threatened to kill the woman,
her children or members of her family, or to commit suicide if
she tells anyone about the abuse or tries to leave. The abuser
may have threatened to take away her children, or harm her in
other ways. She may fear that she will not be understood, believed
or respected by people in authority. When she is an immigrant
or refugee, she may fear that she will be deported. When she is
a lesbian, she may fear being outed to her family
and co-workers. She may fear that her family members, friends
and community will blame her, judge her or cast her out. She may
fear that no one else will want her. When she is dependent on
her abuser for care, she may fear that she will be denied access
to food, water, medication, medical treatment, health care, clothing
or visitors. She may be afraid of being mishandled or restrained.
She may fear that her belongings or property will be misused or
taken from her.
- Feelings of powerlessness. The woman may feel powerless
and lacking in control over her life as a result of the abuse.
Her self-esteem may be damaged. She may experience fatigue or
depression from the stress of being abused. She may feel unable
to escape her abusers control. She may not know that she
has rights.
- Economic dependence. Economic dependence or povertyor
fear of povertycan keep a woman trapped in a violent relationship.48
She may not have any financial resources, educational qualifications,
or employment skills or experience. When she has worked on the
family farm, she and her children may lose this asset when she
leaves. She may have been forced, tricked or manipulated into
giving her abuser control over her finances and property.
- Isolation and lack of social support. The woman may be
isolated from family and friends by her abuser. She may live in
a remote setting, far from any neighbours. She may be surrounded
by people who deny that the abuse is happening or minimize it.
- Lack of access to adequate or affordable shelter and housing.
A woman may not have anywhere to go with her children. There may
not be a shelter in her community, or the shelter may not have
adequate space. She may not be able to find alternative accommodation
that is safe. When she lives in an Inuit community, for example,
the lack of housing in her community may force her to remain in
a dangerous or life-threatening situation.49
- Language or other communication barriers. Women who do
not speak either English or French may lack information about
services and supports available in their community. Existing services
may not provide linguistic or cultural interpreters or advocates.
Where interpreters are available, they may be community members
whom the woman knows, and this may threaten her sense of comfort,
confidentiality or safety. Older women who suffer from conditions
such as Alzheimers may not be able to tell anyone that they
have been abused.
- Lack of accessible, appropriate services and supports.
A woman living in a rural or remote community may live at a great
distance from the nearest services and supports. She may not have
access to a telephoneor may not be able to use a telephoneto
call for help. Her abuser may notice long-distance calls on the
telephone bill. Her access to teletype or other devices may be
restricted.
It may take police or emergency personnel a long time to respond
in a rural or remote setting. When the woman decides to leave, she
may not have any transportation, or any money to pay for transportation.
In small communities, when services are available locally, they
may be delivered by people she knows, and it may be difficult to
ensure confidentiality.
A woman with a disability may not have access to transportation
to leave an abusive situation or get to a shelter. Shelters and
other services in her community may not be accessible. For example,
there may not be anyone who understands sign language.
A First Nations or Inuit woman, or a woman who is an immigrant
or refugee, may not have access to services and supports that are
familiar with or appropriately sensitive to her culture. She may
suspect racist or discriminatory attitudes on the part of service
providers.
A lesbian woman may find that support services are designed for
heterosexual women only. Service providers may not recognize that
abuse occurs in lesbian relationships.
What Can You Do to Prevent and Respond to Abuse?
The best way to prevent and respond to abuse is by collaborating
with other people in your community. Hundreds of community,
volunteer and professional organizationsin communities all
across Canadaare working together to prevent and respond to
woman abuse. Find out who is involved in addressing woman abuse
in your community, and learn about what is being done in your community
and elsewhere. Become a volunteer, or make a contribution to support
these efforts.
As primary caregivers, health care providers are well positioned
to prevent and respond to woman abuse. They play a critical role
in an integrated, multidis-ciplinary and intersectoral response
to this issue. There is growing recognition of the health consequences
of woman abuse, and, as a result, many initiatives are under way
to inform health care providers about how to identify, screen, assess
and support women who have been abused. Some examples of these initiatives
include the development of protocols, guidelines, screening tools,
risk assessment tools, education and training resources, and coordination
mechanisms, among others. As efforts to strengthen the health care
system result in new models of care, it is important that health
care providers continue to be supported in their efforts to prevent
and respond to woman abuse.
How Can You Support a Woman Who Has Been Abused?
Given the extent of woman abuse in Canada, there is a good chance
that someone you knoweither personally or professionallyis
experiencing abuse, even if you dont suspect it. You should
be prepared to deal with this issue and offer support in ways that
will not further endanger a woman or her children.
A woman who is being abused may not feel safe telling anyone about
what is happening to her. When you learn to recognize the signs
of abuse, you can let her know that she is not alone, and that
you are willing to listen to her and believe her. Although there
is no single definitive indicator that a woman is being abused,
you can learn about the physical, emotional or behavioural indicators.
For example, she may have unexplained injuries or chronic health
problems. She may show signs of fear, anxiety or depression. She
may use substances to cope. Her partners behaviour can also
be a sign: her partner may prevent or limit her contact with others,
or try to control her in other ways.
If you decide to raise the issue, make sure you ask her about
abuse in private. Never ask her in front of anyone else,
including her partner or children. All efforts must attempt to
ensure her safety.
Keep in mind that your ability to provide support will depend
on your own experiences, values and attitudes. If you dont
feel comfortable dealing with the issue of abuse, try to understand
why. You may need more knowledge about the issue and the services
and supports available in your community, or you may need support
for your own experiences of abuse. If you need more information
about abuse, contact the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence
or consult the recommended resources (identified on the following
pages). You can find out about the services and supports that are
available in your community by looking in the front section of your
local telephone directory, or by contacting the nearest womens
shelter.
If you do not feel in a position to provide support, you should
be ready to refer a woman to someone else who can help her.
If you are a service provider working in the community, health,
social service, education or justice sphere, you should familiarize
yourself with the many tools that are available to you. There
are growing numbers of professional training programs, protocols
and other resources that address screening, risk assessment, documentation,
referrals, follow-up support, and other areas of professional responsibility.
When a woman tells you she is being abused, you should let
her know that you believe her, and make it clear that no one deserves
to be abused.
Her immediate safety is the most important concern. Ask her
what she needs to be safe. If she feels she is in immediate
danger, offer to call the police or the nearest womens shelter.
If she prefers, give her the shelters telephone number so
she can call (anonymously if she wishes to) for support.
A woman who is being abused has to make many, often extremely
difficult, decisions. You can help her explore her options
by providing information about services and supports,50
and helping her develop a safety plan for herself and her children.51
As a professional, you should be prepared to document the abuse
or your concerns thoroughly.
No matter what the woman decides to door not doabout
the abuse, it is important to continue to be supportive.
It is essential to recognize and respect the complexity of her situation.
For most people, the process of change involves many stages, and
may be difficult and lengthy. Knowing that someone believes in her
strengths and is willing to help her
can make an important difference in the long term.
Where to Get Support if You Have Been Abused
If you are being abused or were abused in the past you are not
alone. You can call and ask for support from the following places
in your community (the telephone numbers should be listed in the
front of your local telephone book):
- Shelter or transition home;
- Police department;
- Police or court victim services;
- Crisis centre or crisis line;
- Womens centre;
- Sexual assault centre;
- Social service agency;
- Health care centre, clinic or hospital;
- Counsellor or psychologist; and
- Community centre or family centre.
Where to Get Help if You are Abusing Your Partner
If you are abusing your partner, you need to take responsibility
for your behaviour and ask for help to make changes. Contact one
of the organizations listed in the section above and ask for assistance.
Where to Get More Information About Woman Abuse
To obtain information and resource materials on woman abuse, contact:
The National Clearinghouse on Family Violence Family Violence
Prevention Unit Healthy Communities Division Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) Health Canada Address Locator: 1907D
9th Floor, Jeanne Mance Building Tunneys Pasture Ottawa,
Ontario K1A 1B4 CANADA
Telephone 1-800-267-1291 or (613) 957-2938
Fax: (613) 941-8930 FaxLink: 1-888-267-1233 or (613) 941-7285
TTY: 1-800-561-5643 or (613) 952-6396
Web site: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/nc-cn E-mail: ncfv-cnivf@hc-sc.gc.ca
Key Web Sites
There are many web sites that deal with woman abuse and related
topics. The National Clearinghouse on Family Violence web site contains
more information and has numerous links to other relevant sites.
Suggested Further Reading
Alliance of Five Research Centres on Violence. Violence Prevention
and The Girl Child: Final Report. Research funded by Status
of Women Canada. 1999.
Biesenthal, Lorri, Lynne Dee Sproule, Mary Nelder, Susan Golton,
Donna Mann, Denise Podovinnikoff, Inge Roosendaal, Shellie Warman
and Donna Lunn, in cooperation with Community Abuse Programs of
Rural Ontario.
Research Report: the Ontario Rural Woman Abuse Study (ORWAS).
Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada, 2000.
Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics.
Family Violence in Canada, A Statistical Profile, 2000.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada; Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000.
Chesley, Laurie, Donna MacAulay, and Janice Ristock. Abuse
in Lesbian Relationships: Information and Resources. Ottawa:
Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 1998.
Duffy, Ann and Julianne Momirov.
Family Violence: A Canadian
Introduction. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company Ltd.,
1997.
Family Violence Prevention Unit.
A Handbook Dealing with Woman Abuse and the Canadian Criminal
Justice System: Guidelines for Physicians.
Ottawa: Health Canada; Cat. No. H72-21/164-1998E (1999).
Gurr, Jane, Louise Mailloux, Dianne Kinnon and Suzanne Doerge.
Breaking the Links Between Poverty and Violence Against Women.
Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada, 1996.
Hotch, D. et al. Domestic Violence Intervention by Emergency
Department Staff. Vancouver: Domestic Violence Program, Department
of Emergency Medicine, Vancouver Hospital and Health Sciences Centre
and the Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians, 1995.
Jamieson, Beals, Lalonde & Associates, Inc. A Handbook
for Health and Social Service Professionals Responding to Abuse
During Pregnancy. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government
Services Canada, 1999.
Johnson, Holly. Dangerous Domains: Violence Against Women in
Canada. Toronto: Nelson, 1996.
Johnson, Sara L. and Brian A. Grant.
Review of Issues Associated with Serious Spouse Abuse Among
Federally Sentenced Male Offenders (Ottawa: Correctional Service
of Canada, 1999)
[ |
Online] Available on Internet:
|
< |
http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/ |
reports/r84/er84.pdf>.
Leventhal, Beth and Sandra E. Lundy, eds. Same-Sex Domestic
Violence: Strategies for Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
1999.
National Crime Prevention Centre.
Personal Security Issues Concerning Women and Girls. Ottawa:
National Crime Prevention Centre, n.d.
[ |
Online]. Available on Internet:
|
< |
http://www.crime-prevention.org/ |
english/publications/fact_sheet/ personE.pdf>
Sudermann, Marlies and Peter Jaffe. A Handbook for Health and
Social Service Providers and Educators on Children Exposed to Woman
Abuse/Family Violence. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, 1999.
The Task Force on the Health Effects of Woman Abuse. Task Force
on the Health Effects of Woman Abuse: Final Report. London:
Middlesex-London Health Unit, 2000.
Warshaw, Carole and Anne Ganley.
Improving the Health Care Response to Domestic Violence: A
Resource Manual for Health Care Providers. San Francisco: Family
Violence Prevention Fund, 1995.
Endnotes
1. |
Ann Duffy and Julianne Momirov, Family
Violence: A Canadian Introduction (Toronto: James Lorimer
& Company, 1997): 26-27.
|
2. |
Walter DeKeseredy and Ronald Hinch, Woman
Abuse: Sociological Perspectives (Toronto: Thompson Educational
Publishing Inc., 1991). For a discussion of the changing terminology
in this area, please see also Donna Denham and Joan Gillespie,
Two Steps Forward... One Step Back: An Overview of Canadian
Initiatives and Resources to End Woman Abuse, 1989-1997
(Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada,
1999): 5-6.
|
3. |
Sharon M. Valente, Evaluating and Managing
Intimate Partner Violence, The Nurse Practitioner,
25, 5 (May 2000) 1.
|
4. |
For further information, consult Canadian Centre
for Justice Statistics, Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical
Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 1998, 1999,
2000); Canada. Statistics Canada, Women in Canada 2000: A
Gender-based Statistical Report (Ottawa: Statistics Canada,
Cat. No. 89-503-XPE, 2000); Holly Johnson and Vincent F. Sacco
(Editors) Focus on the Violence |
Against Women Survey, Canadian Journal of Criminology,
37: 3 (July 1995); Canada. Health Canada; Laura Chesley et al.,
Abuse in Lesbian Relationships: Information and Resources
(Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services; Health
Canada, Cat. No. H72-21/153-1998, 1998); and Beth Leventhal and
Sandra E. Lundy (Editors) Same-Sex Domestic Violence: Strategies
for Change (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 1999).
5. |
Fern Martin and Catherine Younger-Lewis, More
Than Meets the Eye: Recognizing and Responding to Spousal Abuse,
Canadian Medical Association Journal, 157:11 (1997):
1557-1558. This article provides detailed descriptions of eight
categories of abuse.
|
6. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 18.
According to this report, ...emotional abuse is an important
predictor of physical violence in intimate relationships.
|
7. |
National Organization of Immigrant and Visible
Minority Women of Canada, Female Genital Mutilation: Workshop
Manual (Ottawa: National Organization of Immigrant and
|
Visible Minority Women of Canada, 1998).
8. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 23.
|
9. |
Statistics Canada, Women in Canada, 2000 (Ottawa:
Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 89-503-XPE, 2000). |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Family Violence
in Canada: A Statistical Profile (Ottawa: Statistics Canada,
Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000).
10. |
Yasmin Jiwani, The 1999 General Social
Survey on Spousal Violence: An Analysis, Canadian Woman
Studies, 20: 3 (2000): 36. Jiwani notes that the survey
did not capture the full scope of woman abuse, primarily because
some groups of women cannot easily participate in survey interviews
conducted by telephone, including, among others, women who do
not speak English or French, women with speech or hearing disabilities,
women in transition, women who are escaping abuse, women who
are homeless, Aboriginal women living on reserves and women
living in homes without telephones.
|
11. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
|
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000:12, 18).
According to this report spousal violence is defined in the
1999 GSS as experiences of physical or sexual assault that
are consistent with Criminal Code definitions of these offences
and could be acted on by a police officer. The survey also
measured rates of emotional and financial abuse, but these rates
were not included in the overall rates of spousal violence. The
survey found that emotional abuse in an intimate relationship is
strongly associated with the presence of physical violence.
12. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 5.
|
13. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 12,
14, 18.
|
14. |
Yasmin Jiwani, The 1999 General Social
Survey on Spousal Violence: An Analysis, Canadian Woman
Studies, 20: 3 (2000): 38; Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice
Statistics, Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 17.
|
15. |
W. DeKeseredy and L. MacLeod,
Woman Abuse: A Sociological Story (Toronto: Harcourt
Brace Canada, 1997): 5, as cited in Donna Denham and Joan Gillespie,
Two Steps Forward... One Step Back
(Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1999):
4. For a discussion of various theories, including feminist
theories, see also Holly Johnson, Dangerous Domains: Violence
Against Women in Canada (Toronto: Nelson Canada, 1996):
21-25.
|
16. |
For detailed information about the
experiences of immigrant and refugee women who are abused, see
Linda MacLeod and Maria Shin, Like a Wingless Bird: A Tribute
to the Survival and Courage of Women Who Are Abused and Who
Speak Neither English Nor French (Ottawa: Minister of Supply
and Services Canada, 1994), and Linda MacLeod and Maria Shin,
Isolated, Afraid and Forgotten: The Service Delivery Needs
and Realities of Immigrant and Refugee Women Who Are Battered
(Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada, 1990).
|
17. |
For a discussion of links between
colonization and racism and violence in Aboriginal communities,
see Emma
|
|
D. |
LaRocque, Violence in Aboriginal Communities
(Ottawa: Health Canada, 1994): 73-76. This publication is
reprinted with permission from the book The Path to Healing
which was published by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples. |
18. |
Rosalind Savary, When Racism Meets Sexism:
Violence Against Immigrant and Visible Minority Women,
Vis-à-Vis, 12:1 (1994): 1. Vis-à-Vis was
a national newsletter on family violence published by the Canadian
Council on Social Development.
|
19. |
For a discussion of the links between homophobia
and other forms of domination and violence in society, see Laura
Chesley, Donna MacAulay, Janice Ristock and Cynthia Stewart,
Abuse in Lesbian Relationships: Information and Resources
(Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services,
1998): 7-8.
|
20. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 16.
According to this report, women with low incomes (i.e. household
incomes of less than $30,000 per year) experience higher rates
of violence in their relationships than do women with incomes
of $60,000 per year or more.
|
21. |
Lorri Biesenthal, Lynne Dee Sproule, Mary Nelder,
Susan Golton, Donna Mann, Denise Podovinnikoff, Inge Roosendaal,
Shellie Warman, Donna |
Lunn, Research Report - The Ontario Rural Woman Abuse Study
(ORWAS): Final Report (Ottawa: Department of Justice, 2000):
13.
22. |
National Crime Prevention Centre.
Policy Framework for Addressing Personal Security Issues
Concerning Women and Girls. [Online] National Crime Prevention
Centre.
|
|
[ |
accessed March 12, 2001] Available on Internet:
<http://www.crime-prevention.org/english/publications/ women/index.html>:
10, 12. Accessed March 12, 2001; Holly Johnson, Dangerous
Domains: Violence Against Women in Canada (Toronto: Nelson
Canada, 1996): 177.
|
23. |
Canada. Statistics Canada, The
Daily, (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 11-001E, November
18, 1993): 4. According to this report, 21 percent of women
abused by a current or former partner were assaulted during
pregnancy.
|
24. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice
Statistics, Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 15.
|
25. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice
Statistics, Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 40.
|
26. |
Dick Sobsey, Sexual Offenses and Disabled
Victims: Research and Practical Implications, Vis-à-Vis,
1988, as cited in Bridget Rivers-Moore, Family Violence Against
Women with Disabilities: Information from the National Clearinghouse
on Family Violence (Ottawa: Health Canada, 1993): 2.
|
27. |
LInstitut Roeher Institute, Harms
Way: The Many Faces of Violence and Abuse Against Persons with
Disabilities (Toronto: LInstitut Roeher Institute,
1995): 28. This publication provides a comprehensive discussion
of abuse against people with disabilities.
|
28. |
Ontario Native Womens Association,
Breaking Free: A Proposal for Change to Aboriginal Family
Violence (Thunder Bay: Ontario Native Womens Association,
1989): 18-19, as cited in Karen Green. Family Violence
in Aboriginal Communities: An Aboriginal Perspective -- Information
from the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (Ottawa:
Health Canada, 1996): 3.
|
29. |
Claudette Dumont-Smith and Pauline Sioui-Labelle,
National Family Violence Survey: Phase I (Ottawa: Indian
and Inuit Nurses of Canada, 1991): 18. Quoted in Dragging
Wife Abuse Out of the Closet (Wetaway |
News, Nov. 1989), as cited in Karen Green. Family Violence
in Aboriginal Communities: An Aboriginal Perspective -- Information
from the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (Ottawa:
Health Canada, 1996): 3.
30. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics.
Wife Assault: The findings of a National Survey, 14:
9 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1993): 6.
|
31. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 41.
Women whose partners are heavy drinkers are more likely to be
assaulted than those whose partners are not heavy drinkers.
Both the 1999 GSS and the 1993 Violence Against Women Survey
(VAWS) found alcohol to be a risk factor for spousal violence.
|
32. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 16.
This report notes that the VAWS found that women whose partners
were exposed in childhood to violence against their mothers
are three times more likely to be violent toward their wives
than are men who did not have this experience. |
33. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 15.
|
34. |
Holly Johnson, Dangerous Domains: Violence
Against Women in Canada
(Toronto: Nelson, 1996): 184. The author lists a number of other
factors that have been cited in the literature as precursors
to lethal violence, including ...the use of weapons in
prior incidents, sexual abuse in the battering relationship,
violence committed during pregnancy, violence against the children,
threats or fantasies of homicide or suicide, isolation of both
the abuser and the battered woman from support systems, rage,
depression, and the womans attempt to leave an abusive
relationship (Sonkin, Martin and Walker, 1985; Hart, 1988; Campbell,
1992a; 1992b; Kellerman and Mercy, 1992; Kellerman et al., 1993).
|
35. |
Holly Johnson, Dangerous Domains: Violence
Against Women in Canada
(Toronto: Nelson Canada, 1996): 169. Research by Wilson and
Daly (1994) indicates that, between 1974 and 1992, the rate
of wives killed by husbands was six times higher for those women
who had separated from their spouses than those who had not.
|
36. |
The Task Force on the Health Effects of Woman
Abuse, The Health Effects of Woman Abuse: The Routine Universal
Comprehensive Screening (RUCS) Protocol (London, Ontario:
Middlesex-London Health Unit, 2000). See also The Final Report
of the Task Force on Health Effects of Woman Abuse, available
at http://www.healthunit.com under Reports and Research: 15.
|
37. |
Liz Hart and Wanda Jamieson, Abuse During
Pregnancy: Information from the National Clearinghouse on Family
Violence (Ottawa: 2001). This fact sheet provides more information
on the specific health consequences of abuse during pregnancy.
Please see also Liz Hart and Wanda Jamieson, A Handbook
for Health and Social Service Professionals Responding to Abuse
During Pregnancy (Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government
Services Canada, 1999): 9.
|
38. |
Canada. Department of Justice. Female
Genital Mutilation: A Review of the Current Literature. [Online].
Department of Justice. [accessed March 12, 2001]. Available
on Internet: <http://canada.justice.gc.ca/ en/ps/rs/rep/Wd95_15e.pdf>.
Accessed March 12, 2001. Report prepared by Ian Ferguson and
Pamela Ellis. |
39. |
Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,
Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile
(Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000): 5, 16-17.
|
40. |
Marlies Suderman and Peter Jaffe, A Handbook
for Health and Social Service Providers and Educators on Children
Exposed to Woman Abuse/Family Violence (Ottawa: Minister
of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 1999): 9. This
handbook provides extensive information about the effects of
exposure to woman abuse on children. Emotional effects include
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, fear, depression, withdrawal,
low self-esteem, ambivalent feelings towards father and mother,
and other effects. Behavioural effects include aggression with
peers, non-compliance with adults, destructive behaviour and
conflict with the law. Educational effects include lower school
achievement, absences from school, being preoccupied and anxious
in school, truancy, and withdrawn or aggressive behaviour in
school. Social effects include: lower levels of social skills,
social isolation, and keeping the abuse secret from others because
of threats from the abuser. Even very young children (infants
and preschoolers) can be affected by violence. School-aged children
(ages 6-10) may experience problems at school and with their
peers. Teenagers may get involved in violent dating relationships,
be truant or deny that they witnessed the abuse. Girls are more
likely than boys to be withdrawn or depressed, while boys are
more likely to act aggressively. Both girls and boys, however,
can show these effects. Girls are more likely to accept violence
in their dating or marital relationships. Older boys who identify
with abusive fathers may become aggressive towards women. Boys
are also more likely to be violent in their dating and marital
relationships. All children who are exposed to violence against
their mothers may learn that violence is an effective way to
gain power and control over others, are more likely to accept
or excuse violent behaviour, and are more likely to act aggressively
to peers or adults. |
- P.G. Jaffe, D.A. Wolfe, S.K. Wilson and M. Sluscarzck, Similarities
in Behaviour and Social Maladjustment Among Child Victims and
Witnesses to Family Violence, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
56 (1985): 142-146, as cited in Marlies Sudermann, Peter Jaffe
and Lynn Watson, Wife Abuse -- The Impact on Children: Information
from the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (Ottawa:
Health Canada, 1996): 3.
42. |
Michael Paymer, Violent No More: Helping Men
End Domestic Abuse
(Alameda CA: Hunter House Inc., 2000): 1-2.
|
43. |
Lorraine Greaves and Olena
Hankivsky, Selected Estimates of the Costs of Violence Against
Women
(London, Ontario: Centre for Research on Violence Against Women
and Children, 1995): 2
|
44. |
Health Canada, Health Canadas
Womens Health Strategy (Ottawa: Minister of Public
Works and Government Services, 1999): 12.
|
45. |
Tanis Day, The Health-Related Costs of Violence
Against Women in Canada: The Tip of the Iceberg
(London, Ontario: Centre for Research on Violence Against Women
and Children, 1995): 29-34. The report notes that there were
many costs that could not be included in this estimate, such
as those for hospital admissions and physicians services.
|
46. |
Lorraine Greaves and Olena Hankivsky, Selected
Estimates of the Costs of Violence Against Women (London,
Ontario: Centre for Research on Violence Against Women and Children,
1995).
|
47. |
Information on barriers was drawn from the following
publications: |
Irene Ens, Abuse of Older Adults in Institutions: Information
from the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (Ottawa:
Health Canada, 2000).
Laura Chesley, Donna MacAulay, Janice Ristock and Cynthia Stewart,
Abuse in Lesbian Relationships: Information and Resources
(Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1998).
Beth Leventhal and Sandra E. Lundy (Editors) Same-Sex Domestic
Violence: Strategies for Change (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Inc., 1999). Barbara Anello, Report Re: Inter-Sectoral Workshop
on Violence Against Women with Disabilities and Deaf Women and Access
to the Justice System, November 27, 1998, North Bay, Ontario.
Report prepared for the DAWN Ontario Board. [Online]. [Accessed
November 2000]. Available on Internet: <http://www.dawn.thot.net
workshop.html>. Jamieson, Beals, Lalonde & Associates, Inc.,
A Handbook for Health and Social Service Professionals Responding
to Abuse During Pregnancy (Ottawa: Health Canada, 1999). Lorri
Biesenthal, Lynne Dee Sproule, Mary Nelder, Susan Golton, Donna
Mann, Denise Podovinnikoff, Inge Roosendaal, Shellie Warman and
Donna Lunn, Research Report: the Ontario Rural Woman Abuse Study
(ORWAS) (Ottawa: Department of Justice, 2000). Alliance
of Five Research Centres on Violence,
Violence Prevention and the Girl Child: Final Report. Research
funded by Status of Women Canada, 1999.
48. |
Jane Gurr, Louise Mailloux, Dianne Kinnon and
Suzanne Doerge, Breaking the Links Between Poverty and
Violence Against Women
(Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada, 1996): 1.
|
49. |
Pauktuutit Inuit Womens Association, Inuit
Women: The Housing Crisis and Violence
(Ottawa: Inuit Womens Association of Canada, 1994): 1.
|
50. |
This includes providing her with the names, addresses
and telephone numbers for transition houses or shelters, support
groups for battered women, financial aid, victims services
and legal aid, multicultural and First Nations services, counselling
services and crisis lines.
|
51. |
D. Hotch, A. Grunfeld, K. Mackay and L. Cowan,
Domestic Violence Intervention by Emergency Department Staff,
Vancouver: Domestic Violence Program, Department of Emergency
Medicine, Vancouver Hospital and Health Sciences Centre and
the Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians (1995). According
to this manual, safety planning means discussing how to call
(or have someone else call) 911, how the woman can try to protect
herself in an attack, where she can stay if she decides to leave
at any time of the day or night, and what items she will need
to take with her. If she decides to pack a safety bag
and hide it in a secure place, it should include clothing for
herself and her children, cash, cheques and, debit and credit
cards, keys for the house and car, medications, important telephone
numbers, and copies of critical documents, such as passports,
visas, birth certificates, legal papers, marriage and drivers
licences, vehicle ownership, bank books and insurance papers.
If she is pregnant, her safety bag should include clothes for
the newborn, a birthing kit and any other items needed for the
hospital stay.
This document was prepared by Liz Hart and Wanda
Jamieson of Jamieson, Beals, Lalonde & Associates,
Inc. The contributions of the following individuals are gratefully
acknowledged: Katalin Kennedy, Lynn Austin and Gaby Vieira,
Health Canada, and Marianne Fizet, Kimmon Crosier and Sonja
Harrington, Jamieson, Beals, Lalonde & Associates, Inc. |
For more information:
National Clearinghouse on Family Violence
Family Violence Prevention Unit Healthy Communities Division Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) Centre for Healthy Human Development Health
Canada Address Locator: 1907D
9th Floor, Jeanne Mance Bldg., Tunneys Pasture
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 1B4, Canada
Telephone: 1-800-267-1291 or (613) 957-2938
Fax: (613) 941-8930 Faxlink: 1-888-267-1233 or (613) 941-7285
TTY: 1-800-561-5643 or (613) 952-6396 Web site: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/nc-cn
E-mail: ncfv-cnivf@hc-sc.gc.ca
This publication can be made available in alternative formats
upon request.
Ce feuillet de renseignements est également disponible
en français sous le titre La violence faite aux femmes.
March 1995 (Wife Abuse)
October 2001 (revised)
The opinions expressed in this fact sheet are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the views of Health Canada.
Our mission is to help the people of Canada maintain and improve
their health.
Health Canada
Contents may not be reproduced for commercial purposes, but any
other reproduction, with acknowledgements, is encouraged.
- Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the
Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2002.
|