PART I
THE METAMORPHOSIS

Research Branch
Agriculture Canada
1886-1986

Chapter 1
The Experimental Farm Station Act

Long before the white man occupied any portion of North America and while buffalo still roamed the abundant grasslands of the western plains, there were many Indian tribes such as the Hurons, the Tobaccos, and the Neutrals engaged in primitive agriculture (34). Indians of North America grew a variety of crops including maize, beans, squash, sunflowers, tomatoes, and peppers.

With the arrival and settlement of Europeans in North America, farming in areas later to be known as Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick on the eastern seaboard, and as Lower Canada and Upper Canada in the St. Lawrence Valley, and on the Pacific coast had been practiced for more than a century before Confederation in 1867. In Prince Edward Island the basic industry was agriculture. The main industries for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were lumbering, shipbuilding, and fishing, although agricultural production gradually increased to meet the demands of the other sectors. In Lower Canada (now Quebec) agriculture started with the arrival of Robert Giffard and 100 colonists in 1634, although Louis Hébert had farmed at Quebec City since 1617. About 30 years later, Jean Talon organized the seignorial system of land tenure, which assured the continuation of landlord-tenant agriculture. After 200 years, almost all the easily accessible arable land had been possessed. Agriculture was encouraged and practiced intensively along the St. Lawrence River. In Upper Canada (now Ontario), as early as 1802, exports of wheat and flour were over a million bushels (27 000 tonnes). Nearly all its arable land was in use well before Confederation. On the west coast, agriculture was limited primarily to the lower Fraser Valley and Vancouver Island, where it served the needs of local populations. Immigrants found that in these colonized regions cultivation methods that had been used in Europe were generally applicable, because each region had a relatively humid climate similar to that from which the population had emigrated.

The District of Assiniboia, containing the Red River Settlement, formally became part of Canada in 1870 when it was named Manitoba. It was largely self-sufficient in food production, although frequent plagues of grasshoppers in the Summer and early frosts in the fall severely depleted the winter food supplies. In any event, until there was rail connection with either the east or the west coast, Manitoba had little opportunity of exporting surplus production except to the United States.

In 1884 settlers from the east started to move in colonist cars on the partially completed Canadian Pacific Railway to the "free" land in Manitoba and the North-West Territories, later to become Saskatchewan and Alberta, but named "God's Country" by the novelist James Oliver Curwood. They found a country with a dry and hostile climate quite unlike the one they had known in Ontario, Quebec, the Maritimes, or Europe (5). It was their unfamiliarity with the soil and the climate of this new land, and their inadequate farming methods that made the establishment of experimental farms an immediate necessity.

Prior to Confederation in 1867 and the passing of the British North America (B.N.A.) Act when the British Colonies north of the United States of America joined to form the Dominion of Canada, there was a Bureau of Agriculture under a Minister in the Province of Canada (formerly Upper and Lower Canada, see the B.N.A. Act c. 6). The Act recognized the need for both federal and provincial authorities in agriculture and made provision for such under Section 95. This section states that ". . . the Parliament of Canada may ... make laws in relation to Agriculture ... in all or any Provinces; ... any law of the Legislature of a Province relative to Agriculture ... shall have effect in ... the Province as long ... as it is not repugnant to any Act of the Parliament of Canada." Section 93 states that " .. each Province ... may exclusively make laws in relation to education . . . . " As a result of these two sections, provincial governments have generally reserved the right to education in agriculture, which includes agricultural extension, and the federal government has assumed the responsibility for research in agriculture, although not to the exclusion of similar activities on the part of the provinces.

The Department of Agriculture for Canada was organized under the Department of Agriculture Act, which was passed by Parliament and given royal assent on 22 May 1868. In addition to agriculture, the Minister and the department had other wide national responsibilities including immigration, public health, censuses and statistics, patents, copyrights, and trademarks. Agriculture was supposedly the prime responsibility of the department and the Minister, the Honourable J.C. Chapais, and his deputy, Dr. J.C. Taché, lost no time in presenting important Bills to the House of Commons for the protection and improvement of Canadian agriculture. One of the first Bills was an "Act Respecting Contagious Diseases of Animals," passed in 1869. This Act gave the Chief Veterinary Inspector, Prof. Duncan McEachran, who was also Dean of Medicine at McGill University (6), authority to prevent the introduction of animal diseases into Canada. Today's legislation is known as the Animal Disease and Protection Act of 1977 and it continues to help keep Canada free from the most dangerous animal diseases.

In 1883, the Honourable J.H. Pope, Minister of Agriculture, was concerned about the large collection of seeds that had been returned from the Philadelphia Exhibition in an infested state (12). He therefore appointed Mr. James Fletcher to the post of Entomologist for the department. (In 1884 Fletcher signed himself "Honorary Entomologist." The term "Dominion Entomologist" was not used until 1910.) Fletcher was asked to advise on appropriate action to prevent imported insects from becoming serious problems in Canada. At that time, Fletcher worked in the Parliamentary Library as an accountant, but he was also an avid amateur entomologist.

The North-West Territories were acquired from the Hudson's Bay Company by the federal government the year following Confederation. Settlers gradually moved into these great expanses of arable land, but the department had no way of helping the new arrivals decide which crops to grow or how to grow them. Parliament was concerned about this situation and on 30 January 1884 it established a Select Committee of the House of Commons to determine the needs for the improvement of Canadian agriculture.

Mr. G.A. Gigault, M.P., was appointed to chair the Select Committee. The Committee's first action was to send a questionnaire to 1500 Canadians whose names were suggested by Committee members; 385 replies were received, some in great detail. The questionnaire contained five specific questions and these, together with the responses, are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Questionnaire prepared by the Gigault Committee

The Committee suggested the establishment of an experimental farm, to be set up as a garden, where varieties of foreign grain, trees, and fertilizers could be tested. It also suggested that samples of seeds and plants be distributed throughout the Dominion by such an experimental farm. In addition to an experimental farm, the Committee envisioned a central bureau with the objective of collecting information on all matters relating to agriculture. This central bureau would have skilled staff to offer advice, conduct experiments, and note improvements effected in other countries that might be introduced into the Dominion for the benefit of agriculture.

During eight meetings of the Select Committee, 14 witnesses were called. Among the witnesses were Prof. Penhallow, Department of Botany, McGill College; Prof. William Brown, Ontario Agricultural College; Mr. A.M. Ross, Commissioner of Agriculture for Ontario; Mr. Charles Gibb, fruit grower, Abbotsford, Quebec; and Mr. James Fletcher, Honorary Entomologist, Department of Agriculture.

On 21 March 1884, the Committee reported its findings to Parliament. The recommendations of the Select Committee were that the federal government should (1) establish a central bureau of agriculture, and (2) establish experimental farms that would operate in conjunction with the proposed central bureau. The bureau would be part of the Department of Agriculture and have the following objectives:

1. Introduce plants, determine the comparative value of fertilizers, test seeds for and vitality, and test the health of plants and animals.
2. Investigate methods of controlling insects and diseases of plants and animals.
3. Study the qualities of breeds of animals, how to protect them from parasites and diseases, and how best to feed them.
4. Gather useful statistical information.
5. Publish informative bulletins on the foregoing subjects.

The idea of having experimental farms for the express purpose of providing current technology to farming communities was relatively new in North America. The first organized agricultural experimental station in the world was sponsored by Sir John Lawes at Harpenden, just north of London, England, in 1843. It was called Rothamsted, and is frequently referred to as the "mother of experimental stations." Nine years later in Germany, farmers banded together in order to test plants and animals on one farm rather than have individuals conduct tests on their own farms. When the work grew beyond their means, the German farmers requested help from their government, which applauded their initiative and encouraged others toward group experimentation. Within 30 years, that is by 1882, there were 80 experimental stations in Germany. By 1878, France had established 43 experimental stations, which were said to be as important to the farming community as physicians were to sick people and lawyers were in litigious matters. The first agriculture experiment station in the United States was organized in Michigan in 1857. Five years later the government of the United States passed the Morrill Act, which established land grant colleges. Not until 1887, however, was the Hatch Act passed; this Act granted lands for the development of state experiment stations.

Parliament appointed Prof. William Saunders of Northwestern University, London, Ontario, to make further and detailed studies into the practicality of establishing experimental farms in Canada. The appointment was dated 2 November 1885. Saunders worked quickly, for on 20 February 1886, he reported (35) to the Minister, the Honourable John Carling, his findings on 33 states in the United States and on four provinces in Canada. He also gave a summary of the situation in the Dominion Department of Agriculture and referred to the organizations in Europe. Saunders concluded that the benefits derived from agricultural teaching colleges in America under the Morrill Act did not warrant the cost of establishing such institutions in Canada at that time. He did report, however, that agricultural experiment stations were of very great service in supplying information and stimulating progress in agriculture at a comparatively nominal cost. Because agriculture lay at the foundation of Canadian prosperity, Saunders recommended that any reasonable expenditure in the development of agricultural experiment stations should be incurred without delay, leaving the matter of agricultural education in colleges for future consideration.

From Saunders' report we learn that a start had already been made in Canada with respect to education and experimentation in agriculture, Prince Edward Island farmers established an Agricultural Society in 1827 (8), which was formed to import superior blood lines of several kinds of livestock and which eventually resulted in the development of a government stock farm for the same purpose. New Brunswick followed suit, and formed a government stock farm that provided stud and young stock to help farmers upgrade their own herds. Actually, what is believed to be the first agricultural society organized in Canada was the Society for Promoting Agriculture, established in Nova Scotia in November 1789 (1). In 1859, a school of agriculture was started by the Reverend Abbé Pilote at Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, Quebec. In 1912, this school became affiliated with Laval University in Quebec City. Reaman (34) recounts that Prof. George Buckland, who emigrated from Scotland in 1851, gave lectures at the University of Toronto on the science and art of agriculture. In 1863, Dr. Andrew Smith founded the Ontario Veterinary College. At the instigation of John Carling, then Commissioner of Agriculture for Ontario, the Ontario School of Agriculture was organized in 1873 and conducted some agricultural experimental work; it moved to Guelph in 1874.

On 22 April 1886, the Honourable (later Sir) John Carling, by now Minister of Agriculture for Canada, moved that the House of Commons "resolve itself into Committee of the Whole ... to consider the following resolution ..."  The resolution empowered the government to establish experimental farm stations. The motion for the House to go into Committee was approved, but the matter was delayed until the Minister had resumed his duties following a short illness. On 30 April 1886, the Minister reopened the subject, reviewed the work of the Select Committee chaired by Mr. G.A. Gigault, M.P., and reminded the House that Prof. Saunders had been appointed to visit different agricultural experimental farm stations in the United States, and to enquire into the workings of similar institutions in England, Germany, Russia, and France to determine the amount of land each experimental farm needed, their annual expenditures, and the results of experimental work. His report (35) also included observations regarding institutions in Belgium, Ireland, Austria, Hungary, Italy, and Japan. The Minister then said that it was the intention of the government to establish a principal, or central, experimental farm for Ontario and Quebec jointly, in the vicinity of Ottawa, and four other farms in different parts of Canada. According to the proposed Act (see Appendix III), of these four other farms one was to be located in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, one in Manitoba, one in the North-West Territories, and one in British Columbia. Of the 16 Members of Parliament who spoke, none from either side of the House opposed the resolution. One must recall that at the time nearly half the men, and hence voters, in Canada derived their livelihood from the soil. Some Members from the opposition suggested that the appropriate provincial governments should establish such farms because they would be more familiar with the types of problems that required solving in their particular areas. They would also be able to supervise the activities of the experimental farms better than the federal government could from Ottawa. One Member thought markets were needed, not experiments to learn how to grow more produce. This Member stated that "our farmers as a body are intelligent and know precisely what to do in their business ... our farmers are raising too much [produce] and are not paid enough for what they raise."

The remaining speakers were enthusiastically in support of the resolution. Several said that there was nothing before the House during that session as important as the proposal brought by the Minister of Agriculture. Many speakers identified problems that required attention. The most frequently raised one was that of determining the best varieties of crops to grow under each of the climatic conditions selected for the five experimental farms. Such information would make it unnecessary for each farmer to experiment on his own and risk losing some of a year's harvest when part of an experiment was a failure. Another subject of interest was the planting of trees both for shelter and for timber. Those who knew the climatic conditions in the North-West Territories claimed that large stands of trees planted in Manitoba and the Territories would bring substantial benefits to the settlers by providing shelter and timber, and might even soften the severe climate. Others were concerned about fencing and its cost, saying that the experimental farm stations should test various kinds of bushes for their hedgemaking capabilities. The matter of manures, chemical fertilizers, pastures, crop rotations, feeding values of different kinds of crops, and harvesting times for grain were all subjects for lively comment in Parliament. Probably the most significant proposal, however, was that Canada should produce a spring wheat that would ripen before the fall frosts in Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In addition, this spring wheat should be of superior baking quality. One Member wisely noted that since the experimental farm stations were to replace individual experimentation, the results farmers were given by such stations should be dependable.

The second reading was on 7 May 1886. This time, only eight Members of Parliament spoke in addition to the Minister of Agriculture. Questions related to details on how the various experimental farm stations would be set up, where they would be located, the cost to establish them, and the cost to maintain them. The Minister read the conclusions of the Gigault Committee into the Commons Debates. These conclusions, together with Saunders' recommendations, form the basis of Bill 124, The Experimental Farm Station Act (see Appendix III). Some Members suggested again that provincial governments assume the responsibility for these stations or that individual farmers be supplied with the necessary seed and that one farmer in each constituency, recommended by the local Member of Parliament, perform experiments as planned by a central staff in Ottawa. None of these suggestions was adopted, however, and the House agreed to the second reading. The final reading and passage of the Bill, under Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Sir John A. Macdonald, was on 11 May 1886. The House prorogued on 2 June 1886, and Bill 124, together with many others, was given royal assent and became law.

The Experimental Farm Station Act in force today is the same prescient Act that was passed in 1886. It was so well conceived that only minor amendments have had to be made to provide for experimental farm stations in new provinces as they were formed, and to make some administrative adjustments. The Act has served agriculture and Canada well. It gives ministers the freedom to organize according to changing needs, but it charges their officials and scientists with solving problems as these emerge. Initially, the Act met the requirements of an agriculture dependent upon horsepower, then, without change, adjusted to the mechanical evolution, and now provides for the high technology era. Twelve deputy ministers have assured that spending estimates are prepared each year in support of Experimental Farms. Twenty-one ministers have justified them in Parliament. Today, after going through several reorganizations, the Experimental Farms System is known as the Research Branch of the Canada Department of Agriculture. The names used (frequently preceded by "Dominion"), with the dates, are as follows:

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