DAE--DAP:
Making Sensitive Assessments of the Development of Infants and Toddlers
by Sue Martin
Developmentally Appropriate Evaluation (DAE) is a significant component of Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP). To have quality appropriate practice in our work with infants and toddlers we must plan, carry out and evaluate every part of our role and responsibility, paying attention to the needs of the children and the families we serve.
Financial constraints, changing social problems and a myriad of increased expectations have led many early childhood educators to be demoralised. This is currently true for those of us in Ontario who have recently seen deep cuts to our provincial budget that will affect child care dramatically. The opposite trend is much harder to establish, but it has never been more important, not just to sustain our standards of practice, but to enhance them in ways that demonstrate our commitment to children, our professional status and the high quality of our service delivery. If we see current challenges as two steps forward and then one step backwards, the general trend will still be positive even if the progress is slow!
There is a cycle of improvement that is possible. We can see that all components of practice require planning, careful maintenance and reflective evaluation. Developmentally Appropriate Practice is dependent upon this systematic evaluation of the development of infants and toddlers. This involves observing and ascertaining the needs of individual young children, reflecting upon the group's functioning and the effectiveness of the environment, and planning for the children on the basis of our observations. If we don't observe the children, how can we judge the appropriateness of the program we offer?
Appropriateness of Evaluation Methods
Recently, the concept of appropriate practice has broadened to embrace societal, cultural,
economic, ethnic, religious, familial, as well as developmental appropriateness. These
same
concepts are equally applicable to appropriate evaluation. Evaluation must be carried out
in a
manner which takes account of all aspects of the young child's individuality and identity.
Hills, in
Reaching Potentials (1992), points this out by saying «Assessment strategies that
are
not sensitive to cultural differences in learning style and rate and those that are not
designed for
children from linguistically diverse backgrounds cannot provide an accurate picture of
children's
strengths and needs.» Without appropriateness of methodology, the outcome of any
evaluation
will be faulty. This issue is as significant with infants as with older children.
Emphasis on the evaluation of each individual infant or toddler, rather than on the group, is necessary if we respect every young child. The best way of doing this is to plan for opportunities to capture the moment, whenever the moment occurs. Having systems for writing regular running records, notes for anecdotals and having a still or video camera and a tape recorder can help you to keep a permanent record of a transient moment in the child's development. Early language and first demonstration of skills are important for sentimental reasons as well as the more formal developmental reasons!
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation enables adults to see children perform in an optimal way, in familiar surroundings. «Naturalistic observation requires as little interference with children's behaviour as possible» explains Bentzen (1993). This kind of evaluation avoids stress and focuses on true ability rather than the inferred failures that are typical of many testing instruments.
Reliability and Validity of DAE
There tends to be an over-reliance on checklists as the method of choice for recording developmental information about infants and toddlers. While they can have their use, observers should be aware of the various biases that can exist in the checklist itself, and the requirement to make inferences about the child at the time of recording, instead of later.
Appropriate evaluation must be both reliable and valid. Because appropriate evaluation depends upon naturalistic observation, the bias of a "standardized" measuring tool is almost eliminated. With developed skill, educators are able to carry out observations in both the participant and non-participant modes and thereby focus on the abilities of the individual, rather than identify weaknesses, failures or skills that haven't yet emerged. An appropriate process of evaluation is positive in nature and is likely to have the effect of boosting the child's confidence by acknowledging achievements.
If we trust the infant to develop, we should have little need for over-structured plans. What interests the child should be the basis of her curriculum; we need to observe the interests, support the motivation and extend the learning. Vygotsky (1978) offers us an explanation of the adult's importance in this child's activity: «the zone of proximal development» theory highlights the extension of skill and understanding that can occur with an adult's help. Observing the interactions between the adult and the infant or toddler is helpful. Frequently the adult extends the child's thinking without being consciously aware of doing so. The educator may have the opportunity to observe this in a participant mode if a video camera is available. The child-centred curriculum involves the adult. What we need to do is evaluate the child's performance, but without looking at our own involvement in the child's activity, the observation will not be complete or make much sense. Appropriate curriculum needs to evolve to be more responsive than a construction of activities to address children's supposed defects, goals to achieve the "next" developmental stage, or some externally imposed theme. This is facilitated by DAE.
The Context of the Child
Many people, especially the parents, family, caregivers and teachers are part of the social environment. Any evaluation process must factor in all the components of the child's experience if it is to be appropriate. Bronfenbrenner's (1986) ecological model which demonstrates elements of the child's social environment, provides us with an understanding of the systems that comprise the child's experience. Without acknowledgement of the child's context, behaviour cannot be understood. I don't suggest we should judge the parenting style, socially determined behaviours or the kind of family. Much more important is the need to understand the value system and ethos of the family to enable us to interpret the child's demonstrated behaviour. The younger the child, the less direct the influence of the other systems but, however young, the infant or toddler develops in a social context that shapes his/her inner construction of reality.
Observing the infant or toddler requires understanding of the social relationships and their significance. As parents are partners in the care of the very young child, they constitute the core of the social context. Working as a team, the adults can gain mutual understanding and be more likely to assist each other in providing for the young child's commonly perceived needs. Evidence of bonding or attachment to the parent and caregiver is clearly observable. Bowlby (1958), Stern (1973) and Klaus & Kennel (1976) each identified the characteristics of maternal attachment. "Cyclical synchrony" is the term Brazelton (1975) uses for this deep connection. It is entirely possible that this early humanising influence determines the path of the infant's development; consequently we would be failing if we did not attempt to observe it.
Observing Maturation
Biological processes of maturation have been de-emphasised in the last few decades by educators who believe that the young child's development is more dependent upon environmental factors. Now that we understand more about genetic predispositions and potentials, we must revisit the "nature versus nurture" debate with appreciation of the enduring characteristics of individuals and the part that heredity and biology have to play. The cephalocaudal and proximodistal sequences of physical skill development are the easiest aspects of the infant and toddler's development to observe. The sequences are relatively predictable. The timing of skill acquisition varies quite considerably but is straightforward to record.
Temperament
When observing infants and toddlers, we need to recognize the enduring characteristics of genetically determined patterns of behaviour indicating temperamental styles. Early research by Thomas et al (1963) has been confirmed by numerous other studies. Giffin (1991) offers behavioural signs of pathology in personality development, but early childhood educators need to look at atypical as well as typical behaviours to appreciate the infant/toddler's individual patterns.
The Senses
Educators who respond effectively to the cues of infants and toddlers will observe the behaviours of young children with any sensory deficit; their responses to stimuli will differ from the norm or they will exhibit no response. Frequently, the professional notices these things even when a parent hasn't picked up on them. This is because the educator has accommodated to "typical" responses, and will notice "atypical" behaviour. Educators must document these observations and share them with parents, ensuring that appropriate professional referrals are made. Early detection of sensory difficulties such as visual or auditory acuity deficits can usually be remedied quite easily so that long-term cognitive problems can be avoided.
Sensori-Motor Behaviour
Infant and toddler caregivers know about the amazing changes in physical skills as the young child progresses through these stages. The importance of the very young child's active engagement with a safe but stimulating environment is essential for cognitive as well as physical development. As observers, we need to identify the infant's learning about her world from the actions she performs on elements of that world. The schemes that she builds are her internalized understandings of the world (Piaget, 1952). If we are to observe the evidence of sensori-motor intelligence we need to look closely at the infant's specific behaviours, early language and mistakes.
Communication
Parental and caregiver responses to infant cues reinforce early deliberate communications. The acquisition of language, although complex, clearly involves experimentation, imitation and reinforcement, all of which are readily observable. Although posture, gesture and expression can be recorded successfully when evaluating communication, the documentation or audio recording of all sound production can be helpful in evaluating language development. Language samples can be analyzed for the use of symbolism, semantics, grammar, vocabulary, articulation and communication effectiveness.
Quality care indicators and evaluation
The Canadian Child Care Federation states that "quality child care serves the best interests of children and families in a partnership of parents, professionally trained care providers, all levels of government, training institutions, and provincial and territorial and national organizations who carry out complimentary responsibilities" (Canadian Child Care Federation, 1991). The key indicators of quality care are usually characterized in terms of centre size, staff turnover, staff training, ratio, space, equipment, environmental components and quality of interaction.
It is important to acknowledge the more subtle and less measurable aspects of the child's experience, such as stressors. There is evidence that the stress produced from early high expectations is either counter-productive or at least not effective. Elkind (1981) cites many examples of the negative effects of overly high expectations. When evaluating observational data, an appreciation of the infant or toddler's context is necessary to make valid inferences. Using research data regarding the components of a quality infant/toddler environment can provide a benchmark for evaluating this context.
Parents as partners
Parental involvement is possible in all stages of developmentally appropriate evaluation. "Frequent and two-way open communication with parents is the foundation for building parent-teacher relationships and for involving parents as partners in their children's education" (Jones, 1991). For appropriate evaluation of very young children to occur, it is essential to include parents in the team of caregiving adults in the child's life; they will always have perspectives to offer that contribute to the broad knowledge of the child and they are the key people in the child's life who have the strongest feelings, closest bonding and ultimate responsibility for the child.
For infants or toddlers there need to be communication systems established so that up-to-date observation and other information can be exchanged regularly. The links not only support the emotional well-being of the young child but also assist the adults in the child's life to make appropriate decisions about his/her needs and development.
When we observe the young child's responses to the construction of the environment that we provided, we can assess whether it meets the developmental needs and interests of each child. When assessments are made outside the familiar early childhood settings, they can be unreliable and provide an incomplete picture of the young child's abilities. When we emphasize continuous, ongoing observation, we are underscoring the responsibilities of the caregiving team. With this assumption there is acknowledgement of the weight of responsibility to observe as objectively as possible, to analyse the content of the recordings with valid inferences and to respond to the findings by creating and modifying curriculum and guidance strategies to fit the child's needs. Although, on the surface, observation might appear to be rather casual, it is in fact a more systematic approach to evaluation than the more traditional assessment methods and it provides a more challenging way of evaluating components of curriculum than most currently employed. Puckett & Black (1994) explore the issue of the authenticity of assessment and assert that "assessment information must be used to change the curriculum to meet the individual needs of the children." They do not claim that the process is easy -- but that it is essential!
Portfolio Development
Observation of children in their everyday pursuits fits well with the evolving focus on the portfolio philosophy of assessment. Portfolio advocates such as Farr & Tone (1994) and Martin (1994) focus on the ongoing recording of observation as the key component of the portfolio; other aspects involve regular appraisal and updating of records, involvement of parents and families in the collection and evaluation of the material collected, examples of the products of the child's work and play, collections of photographs and any other technologically assisted data collection such as audio recordings of language, pertinent health information and contextual data. The portfolio assessment approach considers every aspect of the child's life and forms a profile that addresses the interacting holistic nature of every individual. With an emphasis on the process of development, there is also an inclusion of the products which might illustrate that development. Over time, the portfolio provides an overview of the individual's pattern of development and the significant life experiences.
Development of Observation Skill
Professional observation requires knowledge of child development and methodologies for recording, the skill to record information as objectively as possible, and the application of knowledge to analyse the data and make valid inferences that can form the basis of adult response to the child. Cartwright & Cartwright (1974) understood this when they explained, "....only behaviour can be observed; the processes and the characteristics which caused the behaviours are out of sight. They can be inferred, but they cannot be observed...." This knowledge base and skill acquisition takes a long period of study, professional development opportunities and much practice. While we try to be as objective as possible, we need to be able to make professional judgements: "....there is subjectivity involved in techniques of observation.....without daring to be subjective, objectivity does not come. Observation will remain at the level of prejudice, unable to distinguish between what actually happens and their judgements about what happens," (Isaksen, 1986).
This is the dilemma for teachers: when to make judgements and when to avoid subjectivity. Obviously we need to make our judgements appropriate. Many educators believe that they are effective observers but they merge their perceptions with interpretations without realising the inappropriate subjectivity that this can lead to. The separation of observed fact from interpretation is, however, an essential part of the process of the teacher's skill development. Early experience in observation is more likely to be successful if it uses narrative styles rather than rating scales, checklists or other interpretative methods of recording, which require identifying, categorising and analyzing behaviours in one process. Understanding the strengths, weaknesses and possible uses of a wide variety of recording methods enables the adult to select the most appropriate way of gathering the information that is needed. Few teachers would disagree with the idea that observation is the key to developmentally appropriate practice, but they may not realise that their skill needs sharpening!
Planning to Observe
Of course a belief in the necessity for systematic observation is essential but it needs to be reinforced with action. Structuring time, setting up recording systems, organizing team meetings, using available technological facilities, identifying processes for securing valid inferences and establishing confidential storage and efficient retrieval protocols are the practical challenges that need to be addressed. It may be possible to dovetail new observation methods into existing reporting systems, but if a child care centre wishes to shift its approach to embrace observation and portfolio philosophy, it is likely that existing systems that had been developed under a differing notion of evaluation methodology would not be appropriate.
Analysis of Data
It is not only the recording component that presents the challenge. More difficult is the effective analysis of the data. Here is the gap for many teachers because their inferences are less than carefully drawn considerations. They may lack the support of any validation or make inferences that are insupportable. Ensuring that every statement of evaluation can be and is supported by the application of reputable theoretical explanations of the behaviour, reference to reliable norms and possibly the confirmation of a fellow professionals' opinion are the only processes that can validate the evaluation. [For a detailed explanation, see Martin (1994)].
Of particular use to infant or toddler educators are appropriate norm referencing tools. Two examples are Allen & Marotz (1995) and Sheridan (1987). Whichever is used, there must be sensitive interpretation and strict avoidance of terminology that implies failures or deficits. Use of theoretical models to explain observed behaviours is an enormous challenge for both students and educators. It is essential to the evaluation of the development of infants and toddlers that we use well researched and tested theories. First attempts to use theoretical models may be worded awkwardly; practice and keeping up-to-date with current research are necessary for the process to succeed. Anything less than this leaves us open to criticism from those who want to use standardised assessment tools because they have concern for the validity of the evaluation process. Indeed, there is some similarity between these two approaches even though they may seem divergent; they both conform to checks of reliability and validity in the traditional sense. The observation approach, however, requires the tool of measurement to be applied on the data after it has been collected rather than, in the traditional approach, as part of the data collection system itself.
Summary
The key components of developmentally appropriate evaluation are:
Sue Martin trained as a kindergarten teacher at the Froebel Institute,
University of London, England. She has experience working with children in a range of
settings
and has taught in British Colleges of Further Education. Sue currently teaches early
childhood
education students at Centennial College (Scarborough, Ontario) and practising
kindergarten
teachers at the University of Toronto's Faculty of Education. Published in the U.K.,
Canada and
the U.S.A., Sue has authored numerous journal articles; contributed to the book Child
Care and Education: Canadian Dimensions, edited by Isabel Doxey (published by
Nelson
Canada); and is the author of Take a Look: Observation and Porfolio Assessment in
Early Childhood, published by Addison-Wesley in 1994.
References
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This article first appeared in Interaction published by the Canadian Child Care Federation, Spring 1996. |
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