Flintknapping Techniques
haut
|
Flintknapping Techniques |
haut |
Stone Chipping Techniques.
A. Direct percussion flaking.
B. Indirect percussion flaking or the punch technique.
C. Pressure flaking.
UNIFACIAL FLAKING
 |
UNIFACIAL FLAKING yields flakes that can indicate which hand was favoured by the toolmaker. A right-handed individual holds the hammerstone in the dominant right hand and the core in the left hand; the core tends to be rotated clockwise as a sequence of flakes is struck off one face. Left-handed individuals reverse the arrangement and generally turn the core counterclockwise. The pattern of cortex, or weathered rind, on the flakes can show which hand held the hammerstone. The flakes numbered 2 and 3 in the lower panel are "right-oriented," suggesting a right-handed toolmaker (on left-oriented flakes, made by left-handers, the crescent of cortex has the opposite orientation). Analysis of large populations of prehistoric flakes enabled the author to determine that early hominids appear to have become preferentially right-handed by between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago. |
STONE-KNAPPING METHODS
The examples shown are divided horizontally according to the way in which the force is applied (by direct percussion, indirect percussion, and pressure flaking). Indirect percussion usually refers only to the technique shown in 4. However, in the wider meaning used here, it refers to all the methods that combine the strong impetus of a striking hammer (as in direct percussion) with the precision resulting from placing the part of the blank that is to be flaked directly in contact with a flaking device, a retoucheur or an anvil (as in pressure flaking). The left side of the table shows methods by which a moving force removes flakes from a stationary blank. The right side shows examples where the stone to be knapped is moved by percussion or pressure against a stationary object. The bipolar method (2) crosscuts the dividing lines, since it involves a double process in which both the mobile hammer, by direct percussion, and the stationary anvil, by indirect percussion, remove flakes from the blank.
BIFACIAL FLAKING
Bifacial flaking was one of the chief methods employed by early toolmakers. It was generally carried out by means of the technique called "hard-hammer percussions". A stone serving as a hammer was held in one hand and the core, or rock to be flaked, was held in the other (1). After a flake had been struck off, the core was turned so that the flake scar (here numbered to match the flake) could serve as a platform for striking off the next flake (2). For effective flaking, the inset angle between the striking platform and the core's outer surface must be less than 90 degrees. Striking off more flakes (3, 4) yields a core with a bifacial edge.
|
|
During the Upper Palaeolithic era, a new technique was invented, enabling the manufacture of blades. The stone is broken to create a striking platform; then vertical pieces are flaked off the side of the flint, eventually forming a sharp-edged tool. |
|
|
These drawings show top and side views of the steps in the Levalloisian technique. (A) shows the trimming of the edge of the stone nucleus; (B) shows the trimming of the top surface; (C) shows the striking platform; (D) is the final step. |
|
Pressure flaking |
haut |
This paper is not intended to establish or
disproved theories but to convey to the membership my experiences of
the last 16 years with pressure flaking using a deer antler point; if
it should add to knowledge or even promote dialogue it will be worth
the effort. I made a total of 400 points and 50 tools using antler
points and the following method.
The antler point should be 4 to 6 inches long and straight, so that by rolling it as the flaking is done it will wear evenly and keep a sharp point which is very important for making notches. The antler point should be held firmly in the hand with the sharp end pressed between the thumb and forefinger, and the opposite end secure in the palm of the hand: Had nature given us an antler-like thumb, it could be used for flaking.
Large thin flakes should be used initially to experiment and acquire experience, then broken unidentifiable points, obsidian, (nature's glass), glass, porcelain and flint; finally any material that flakes can be used.
The material to be flaked should be wrapped in a piece of leather in such a way as to protect the thumb from flakes being pressed under the thumb-nail; it should then be held between the thumb and the 4 fingers of the hand opposite to the one holding the antler point.
While one hand holds the material, the other applies pressure to it on the side to remove flakes in a regular pattern (fig 1a). Then, turn the material over and repeat, creating a single flake effect (primary flaking). Now pressure is applied to the peaks (secondary flaking) of the removed flakes (fig 15) and the whole process is repeated until the desired results are achieved. Another way is random flaking (fig 3), where pressure is applied to the sharper or more suitable spots. The best method is to combine primary and secondary flaking (fig 2c) which consists of applying pressure to the edge of the previously removed flake.
The angle and the amount of pressure determines the size of the flakes to be removed. A sense of proportion is essential, so proceed remembering that the object is to produce a blank (fig 4). To hasten the process, an antler point that is worn flat at the tip (from a lack of rotation) can be used to remove 3 or 4 secondary flakes at a time. The distal end of the blank should be left in a rough state to avoid breakage.
The notches are made by removing one large flake (fig 15) on each side of the blank at the desired height (fig 5e). Then 2 more are removed on the reverse side. Finally, the secondary flakes (fig 6f) are removed to achieve the desired notches. The notches and the base corners are the most delicate procedures of pressure flaking, therefore proceed with caution.
The base or proximal end can now be considered in a straight, concave or convex fashion. Then, all peaks (fig 15) can be removed by light secondary flaking and smoothing is done by rubbing the antler back and forth across the base. The distal end can now be finished by removing one flake from the top on each side (fig 9). Then the 4 sides are flaked producing a fine point (fig 8).
In conclusion, some aspects of pressure flaking must be noted, including:
1. When hard spots occur they have to be removed by percussion flaking (fig 10i) or using the antler as a punch.
2. The incurve on an artifact is achieved by removing extra flakes on one side (fig 12-1).
3. A point type cannot be reproduced unless the diagnostic traits are incorporated in the flaking process.
4. My purpose for delving into pressure flaking is to acquire knowledge by seeking answers to what, who, when and why?
5. Safety glasses should be worn to protect the eyes.
|
Hafting |
haut |
For the
purpose of this article the term "hafting" shall be used to denote
the process by which a point is attached to a shaft and lashing is
applied to secure the point.
To proceed, the distance between the notches on the point should be equivalent to the width of the shaft. The groove in the shaft should fit the point's base and extend 2 to 4 mm above the notches or to that place on the blade where the point and the shaft are of the same thickness; if the shaft is thicker, it should be tapered. A slight indentation on the shaft parallel to the base, as well as the notches, will prevent slippage.
Points without basal grinding can be used to make the groove, otherwise flakes are used. When the groove and the point are well fitted, they will absorb 95% of the shot's impact and the lashing 5%. However, only a good lashing job makes this possible. Should the lashing loosen, it could be cut by the point unless basal grinding is evident.
Sinew for lashing was tried, however the applied tension must be just right, for in the drying process greater tension results and the lashing can break. Nylon fishing line is a good substitute.
Using the X-lashing method (fig. 1), the lashing should be stretched from the base diagonally to a notch, then across to the other notch, diagonally down to the opposite base, and across the base. Repeat this procedure at least six times, then proceed five times around the notches and the base. Before the last two turns, insert the end of the lashing below the base and towards the shaft, pull tight and cut the ends. Reversing the process at the halfway mark will produce even better results.
The notch-to-notch method (fig. 2) is not as effective, but still adequate; rigidity is not achieved and maintained to the same degree as the X-method which anchors the point at both the notches and the base.
The dictionary defines mucilage as a gummy or slimy substance obtained from the seeds, bark or roots of various plants by infusion in water. A similar substance can be obtained from the upper part of the hoof from a cow, horse or bison. Conscious of Stone-age man's knowledge of plants and animals, one could reach the conclusion that such a material was used as a glue to further strengthen the hafting.
Basal grinding and smoothing protects the lashing from the point's flaking and, to a lesser degree, the shaft, which can split only if the lashing breaks by eventual wear; but it can be replaced. Maximum use of the arrow is the norm until it is lost or discarded.
Points suitable for this type of hafting would include "Plains side-notched" and "Prairie side-notched" (made from thin flakes), as well as "Besant" and "Oxbow" (basally thinned).
One arrow I made using this hafting method was shot 18 times in a target without noticeable damage to the hafting, although the flaking on the point shows definite wear and the distal end had to be re-sharpened once. The arrow is still in very good condition.
