Who Were the Fathers of Confederation?
The term "Fathers of Confederation" generally refers to all of
the people who represented the British North American colonies at one or more
of the three conferences that paved the way for
the birth of the Canadian federation (these were held in Charlottetown, Quebec
and London, England between 1864 and 1867)
[ For a picture see http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2300-f.html
]
1. What happened in the 1850s-60s to make people start thinking about
the need for a federal union of British North America?
After 1840, British North America was made up of the Province of Canada (what
is now Quebec and Ontario), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and
Newfoundland. Each had their own legislatures and operated separately. By the
late 1850s and early 1860s, people throughout the colonies began to talk of the
possibility of uniting the Maritime provinces or even joining all of British
North America into one large federation. There were several factors that drove
these discussions, including:
- political deadlock in the Parliament of
the Province of Canada;
- the threat of American expansion; and
- the need for economic development and railway construction.
2. Who were the Fathers of Confederation? What did they hope to gain
as they set off for the Conferences?
While 36 parliamentary delegates attended one or more of the conferences
leading up to Confederation, there are certain personalities who played a
particularly high profile or central role in the debates that took place and in
developing the Canadian federation.
i) John A. Macdonald
ii) George Brown
iii) George-Étienne Cartier
iv) Alexander Tilloch Galt
v) Charles Tupper
vi) Thomas D'Arcy McGee
vii) Hector-Louis Langevin
i) John A. Macdonald
Macdonald
is credited by many with being the dominant creative force behind the move
towards Confederation. He began his professional career as a lawyer in the mid
1830s and practised law for most of his life. Macdonald entered politics at the
municipal level in Kingston, eventually being elected to the Legislative
Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1844 (at the age of 29). He served in both
the Government and Opposition until the election of 1854, after which he was
involved in the creation of a new political alliance – the
Liberal-Conservative Party – in which the Conservatives were attached to the
French Canadian majority political block. Once returned to office, he assumed
the prestigious post of Attorney General of Canada West. In 1856 Macdonald
became joint-premier of the Province of Canada, along with Étienne-Pascal
Taché (and then with George-Étienne Cartier 1857-62).
With political deadlock plaguing his
government in the early 1860s, Macdonald began to recognize the potential that
lay in creating a new federation. While he conceded the necessity of a federal
arrangement to accommodate strong racial, religious and regional differences,
Macdonald's preference was for a strong, highly centralized, unitary form of
government.
ii) George Brown
Brown was a prominent and influential publisher, businessman 
and
parliamentarian in Upper Canada. In 1844 he founded what was to become the most
powerful newspaper in British America, Toronto's Globe. For years he used this
publication to support the Reform Party, a political party advocating the need
for responsible government.
Once this battle was won, Brown entered politics in 1851. Brown became a
vocal proponent of "Rep-by-Pop"
(representation by population), as a means of giving more voice to the
English majority in Canada West. When this message failed to be embraced by the
electorate, Brown increasingly advocated federal union of the British North
American colonies as both a solution to political stalemate and as a way to
promote economic growth.
iii) George-Étienne Cartier
Cartier was a dominant figure in the politics of Canada East in the years
leading up to and following Confederation. After a year in exile in Vermont for
his role in the anti-government rebellion in
1837, he was permitted to return to Montreal where he practised law. A keen
interest in politics soon developed and he played an important role behind the
scenes in the fight to bring responsible
government to Lower Canada. In 1848 he officially entered politics. During
his long career he promoted a variety of causes including the introduction of
primary education in the province and the establishment of the Civil Code as the
formal law of Canada East. In 1857-58 and 1858-62 he served as co- premier with
his friend and confidant John A. Macdonald.
Cartier had several reasons for supporting Confederation notably his fear of
American expansion. He argued that the precondition for federation must be a
strong presence of French Canadian representation in the federal Cabinet and
strongly articulated provincial powers. He and his supporters rejected any
measures that might have contributed to the assimilation of French Canada.
iv) Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt
Galt was a successful businessman and financier in Lower Canada in the 1840s
serving for several years with the British American Land Company in the Eastern
Townships. 
During
this time he involved himself in many different regional business ventures,
notably railroad promotion. He entered politics in 1849 representing Sherbrooke
in the legislature of the Province of Canada and with the exception of a short
period from January to March 1850 he was re-elected continuously until 1867.
For most of this period he sat as an independent, focussing his attention on
a variety of different issues, notably the separation of church and state. While
he was considered by many to be a reform-minded politician, some viewed him
suspiciously as a result of his close ties to the railroad industry and
therefore the government. Ultimately he gravitated towards John A. Macdonald's
government and was put in charge of the Department of Finance where his business
expertise became evident. Galt's expertise with finances were called upon during
the development of the federal model debated at the Confederation conferences.
It was he, to a large degree, who was responsible for working out the financial
agreements that helped to bring the various partners together.
v) Charles Tupper
In 1855, after a successful medical career in Amherst Nova Scotia, 
(he
was the first president of the Canadian Medical Association, 1867-70), Charles
Tupper sought a seat in the Nova Scotia Assembly for the first time. After
dramatically winning in Cumberland County he spent several years in differing
functions in the government until becoming premier in May 1864. During this time
he developed a reputation as one of the most powerful orators in British North
America. Upon assuming the office of Premier, Tupper moved a resolution
providing for the Charlottetown Conference to consider Maritime union. While a
firm supporter of the idea of a British North American union, Tupper was also a
vocal advocate of Maritime rights. He saw the benefits of a strong central
government, but was wary of giving too much power to Ottawa and thus threatening
Nova Scotia's ability to manage its own affairs. He was also conscious of the
fact that there was strong resistance in his province to the idea of Ottawa
having to much say over Nova Scotia's future.
vi) Thomas D'Arcy McGee
Thomas D'Arcy McGee was an Irish nationalist who emigrated to
the United States and then to Canada in 1857.
McGee had been a successful newspaper editor in Ireland and Boston, and upon
arriving in Montreal began the newspaper New Era. He used his newspaper to
advocate the creation of a federation of British North America, the construction
of a transcontinental railway, the settlement of the West and the development of
a distinctly Canadian literature (he was an accomplished writer, publishing over
300 poems and writing several works on Irish history). He was elected to the
Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1858.
While he was at first a supporter of George Brown and the Reformers he
gradually abandoned them over their seeming lack of enthusiasm for such projects
as the railway and the settlement of the West. He subsequently joined with John
A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier in their "Great Coalition".
He advocated federal union as a way of creating what he referred to as a
"new nationality" in British North America. He is considered by many
to be one of the most eloquent speakers to ever sit in Parliament.
vii) Hector-Louis Langevin
Though trained as a lawyer, Hector-Louis Langevin chose instead a career in
journalism. 
In
the late 1840s he worked as a journalist and editor for a variety of newspapers
(ultimately owning his own newspaper, Le Monde, in 1884). Langevin entered
politics in 1857 after being elected Mayor of Quebec City. He subsequently was
elected to the Legislative Assembly and later held the position of Solicitor
General of Canada East (1864-66) and Postmaster General (1866-67). He was also
head of the St-Jean-Baptiste Society in
Quebec City between 1861 and 1863 and the Institut
Canadien between1863 and 1864.
Langevin was a vocal defender of Quebec's interests at both the Charlottetown
and Quebec Conferences. A strong French-Canadian patriot, Langevin rejected any
measures that would dismantle French Canada's "different customs, manners
and laws". He believed that the federal system was the best way to preserve
French Canadian traditions and culture and to ensure political equality with the
rest of Canada.
Conflicting ideas on the nature of the federation
Several different ideas about the nature of a united British North America
were proposed both before and during the Conferences held from 1864 to 1867. On
some matters there was general agreement. There was virtually unanimous
consensus that the creation of a new federation should not be seen as a step
towards independence from Britain.
"Federalism is a great principle that speaks to the very foundation of
human nature." -Thomas D'Arcy McGee
The participants at the conferences agreed that the British constitution –
not the American constitution – would provide the model to be followed
wherever possible. There was also consensus that both French and English would
be the languages of a new central government and Parliament, the federal courts
and the courts of the legislature of Lower Canada.
John A. Macdonald was a vocal advocate of the creation of a powerful central
government that would have sweeping jurisdiction. While he conceded the fact
that the provinces, like American states, needed to retain their identity and
their own local legislatures, he argued in favour of a "legislative
union" like that of Great Britain. [For excerpts from Macdonald's speeches
see www.nlc-bnc.ca/confed/h18-272-e.html
].
While some Canadian delegates felt that a unitary system, creating a single
government, seemed to make sense, it was clear that it would not be acceptable
to the French Canadian and Maritime delegates.
"Some parties - through the press and by other modes - pretended that it
was impossible to carry out Federation, on account of the differences of races
and religions. Those who took this view of the question were in error. It was
just the reverse. It was precisely on account of the variety of races, local
interests, etc., that the Federation system ought to be resorted to and would be
found to work well." - George-Étienne Cartier, 1865
Both felt that their unique interests might be threatened by the elimination
of provincial assemblies. Ultimately the notion of a two-tiered system of
government was endorsed, one with local assemblies in the provinces and a strong
central government.
George-Étienne Cartier, the trusted leader of the majority of French
Canadians, believed that French Canadians needed to have the power to protect
their distinctive features.
"The central or federal parliament will have control of all measures of
a general character...but all matters of local interest, all that relates to the
affairs and rights of the different sections of the confederacy will be reserved
for the control of the local parliaments". - Hector-Louis Langevin, 1865
He argued in favour of a two-tier federation, with a central government to
administer matters of general concern and a local government empowered to deal
with education, the legal system and religious matters. He saw these
institutions as key to protecting French interests. At the same time, however,
he did not see any reason to limit the power of the central government in other
areas. He believed that the economic and political interests of French Canada
were the same as those of English Canada and should be dealt with by a central
administration. Cartier also viewed a federation as the most effective way to
accommodate different regional and cultural realities.
"We have strengthened the General Government. We have given the General
Legislature all the great subjects of legislation...we have thus avoided the
great source of weakness which has been the cause of the disruption of the
United States." - John A. Macdonald, 1865
While most agreed that a two-tiered system was desirable, many delegates
feared that too many provincial rights might lead to the break down of the
federation. Many saw the Civil War in the United States as evidence that a
decentralized federation was inherently unstable. As a result, it was decided
that the "General Government" would have all the powers that really
mattered to people in the 1860s, including defence, banking, shipping, railways
and trade. The local government, on the other hand, would be responsible for
matters such as education, jails, local public works, and "all matters of a
private or local nature."
At the end of the Quebec Conference (October 10-27, 1864) there was general
consensus about what form the new federation should take. The delegates endorsed
72 resolutions [ see: http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-245-e.html
], which formed the basis of the debates about Confederation that took place
across British North America.
The Confederation Debates
While there was some resistance in the legislature of the Province of Canada
to the notion of federation, it was approved with relative ease. The oratorical
skill of Macdonald, Cartier and Brown proved sufficient to win over many
sceptics. This was not the case in the Maritimes, however. The Atlantic colonies
of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick still had
reservations about the need for union. With the exception of Newfoundland, they
felt comfortable as they were, and the bulk of the population, especially in
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, saw no reason to change their
constitutions.
There was strong public opinion against union on both Prince Edward Island
and Newfoundland. The populations of both islands saw little reason to turn
their affairs over to a government somewhere in the wilds of far off Canada.
These feelings would ultimately lead PEI and Newfoundland to postpone their
entry into Confederation It was only in the 1870s after several governments
amassed crippling debts while attempting to build railways, that Prince Edward
Island joined Confederation mainly as a way to have the new Dominion bail the
colony out financially.
Similar feelings were also articulated in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
There was fear that Confederation would mean higher taxes and that local matters
would lose out to national concerns. Joseph Howe, a prominent anti-Confederate
once said that Nova Scotia would be "politically insane to give up their
distinct formations and subscribe themselves to the domination of Canada."
An election was held in New Brunswick in 1865 with Confederation as the main
issue and the electorate loudly rejected the Quebec Resolutions. Charles Tupper,
the premier of Nova Scotia, did not even put the question to the electorate,
fearing what the reaction would be. It appeared to many that Confederation was
finished before it started.
Attitudes were to change quickly however. Pressures from outside the
provinces would lead New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to change their minds. First
of all, there was pressure from the British Government that favoured any scheme
under which British North America would take on more responsibility for itself,
particularly its defence. It put pressure on the Atlantic colonies, in June
1865, sending an imperial dispatch to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia declaring
that it was "the strong and deliberate opinion" of the British
Government that Confederation was "an object to be desired". At the
same time, the American government began to erect large trade barriers that
essentially closed American markets to British and Canadian goods. The Maritimes
now needed Canadian markets more than ever. Finally, the threat of aggression
from the south began to rear its head. An unsuccessful invasion by American Fenians
in April and June 1866 frightened many into regarding union as a
defensive necessity.
Full List of Participants
Charlottetown Conference (September 1-9, 1864)
Province of Canada: George Brown, Alexander Campbell, George-Étienne
Cartier, Alexander Galt, Hector Langevin, John A. Macdonald, William McDougall,
Thomas D'Arcy McGee.
New Brunswick: Edward Barron. Chandler, John Hamilton. Gray, John
Mercer Johnson, William Henry Steeves, Samuel L.Tilley. [see http://www.gov.nb.ca/legis/fathers.htm
]
Nova Scotia: Adams G. Archibald, Robert Barry Dickey, William
Alexander Henry, Jonathan McCully, Charles Tupper.
Prince Edward Island:, George Coles, John Hamilton Gray, Andrew
Archibald Macdonald, Edward Palmer, William Henry Pope.
Quebec Conference (October 10-27, 1864)
Those named above were joined by:
Province of Canada, Jean-Charles Chapais, James Cockburn, Oliver Mowat, Sir
Étienne P. Taché.
New Brunswick: Charles Fisher, Peter Mitchell.
Prince Edward Island: Thomas Heath Haviland, Edward Whelan.
Newfoundland: Frederic Carter, Ambrose Shea.London Conference (December
1866-February 1867)
London Conference (December 1866-February 1867)
Some of the above did not attend, and there were three new delegates: for
Canada: William Pierce Howland; for Nova Scotia: John William Ritchie; and for
New Brunswick: Robert Duncan Wilmot.
For Further Reading
The National Library of Canada provides a comprehensive bibliography
concerning Confederation on their web site. Please visit: www.nlc-bnc.ca/confed/biblio.htm
LEXICON
Fenians
Members of a movement initiated in 1857 by Irish-Americans to secure Irish
independence from Britain. The movement was divided into 2 factions, one
favouring an uprising in Ireland, and another led by William Roberts, intent on
invading Canada. The Fenians launched several small and unsuccessful raids on
Canadian border communities in the 1860s.
Institut Canadien
A centre founded by young French Canadian intellectuals in Montreal in 1844.
It was intended to encourage French culture and patriotism. Originally intended
to be a predominantly cultural organization, it quickly became an important
political voice.
Political Deadlock
The Act of Union, which came into effect in 1841, joined Upper and Lower
Canada (what is currently Ontario and Quebec) into a single province with one
Parliament. Seats in that legislature were divided more or less equally between
Upper and Lower Canadian representatives. While this ensured that the interests
of both communities were balanced, it also created political tensions as the two
parts of the province advocated different priorities.
Mistrust and incessant political squabbling created virtual deadlock in the
Provincial parliament by the early 1860s. Successive governments found it
difficult if not impossible to build consensus on key issues. By the spring of
1864 the province had had two elections and three changes of government in three
years. An increasing number of people began to question the usefulness of the
existing system and started looking for an alternative.
"Rep-by-pop"
(Representation by population)
A policy demanded by citizens of Canada West to replace equal representation
of the two Canadas in the legislature of the Province of Canada after 1850. It
was felt by many in Canada West that the distribution of seats in the
legislature should not be balanced equally between Canada West and Canada East,
and instead should be based on population size. By the 1850s Canada West had a
growing population lead over the largely French-speaking eastern section.
Responsible Government
In the Canadian context, responsible government means that the government can
only govern so long as it has the confidence of the majority of the House of
Commons. Citizens exercise influence over the government by electing
representatives to the House. Responsible government was achieved in Nova Scotia
in January 1848 and in the Canadas in March 1848.
St-Jean-Baptiste Society
A French Canada patriotic association founded in 1834 in order to increase
pride among Francophones for their culture and language.
Return to regular web page:
http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/default.asp?Language=E&Page=federation&Sub=WhoWeretheFathersofConfe