OVERVIEW Most of Northern Ontario lies within the Canadian Shield, a rugged, hilly, lake-pocketed plateau, ranging from 300 to 600 meters above sea level. Glaciers advanced across the land during the last Ice Age, some 50,000 years ago, wearing down hills, gouging out depressions, carving out streams and river beds and scraping off topsoil. As the glaciers retreated, they exposed a bare rocky terrain dotted with many lakes, both large and small. As many of the larger lakes receded they left flat lake beds, which were well drained and free of boulders. It was in this way that the agricultural potential for the north shore of Lake Huron was created. Much of the arable land was deposited in valleys that were separated from one another by rocky hills and sandy tracts not suitable for farming. The principal farming area was located west of Blind River within fifteen miles of the lake coastline. Farming had been practiced in Sault Ste. Marie from the earliest days of European settlement. The Jesuits had introduced farming to the Ojibway and the practice had continued. Charles Oakes Ermatinger, a fur trader, maintained a large vegetable garden and grew fields of grain that he processed in his grist mill. However, later attempts at farming did not meet with the same degree of success as that of the early settlers. Difficulties stemmed from a number of problems, including climatic variances, irregular soil conditions, lack of seed hardy enough to germinate and grow during the shortened growing season in the north, a lack of accessible markets, and a lack of roads or railroads on which to transport and distribute agricultural produce. Farming methods successful in Europe and other parts of Canada did not produce the same results in Sault Ste. Marie. As a result, much of the agricultural development was market garden or subsistence level farming. In the 1860's lumbering, mining at Bruce Mines and Montreal River and the development of Sault Ste. Marie as a transportation center, encouraged agricultural development. Over 18,000 acres of land in the area were under cultivation by 1871. It was during this period that agriculture in Northern Ontario began to develop in a systematic fashion. This was largely because of the policies adopted by the provincial governments of John Sandfield Macdonald (1867-71) and Oliver Mowat (1871-96). By 1870 the best lands in Southern Ontario had been occupied, and farmers began to look to new frontiers in the American midwest and the Canadian northwest. In order to stem the tide of emigrants from the province, these governments portrayed Northern Ontario as a land of opportunity for farmers and passed a number of measures to encourage settlement. The legislation that laid the basis for the agricultural development of the north was the Free Grants and Homestead Act of 1868, which opened selected free lands in the Nippissing and Algoma territories to settlement. Once surveyed, townships designated as free lands were made available to settlers on the basis of up to two hundred acres per head of household. An additional 100 acres of free land was allowed for each child in the family over eighteen years of age. Provision was also made for settlers to by additional land at a minimal price if they chose. Attached to the grants were conditions of clearing, cultivating, building construction, and a six-month-per-year residency requirement. Failure to meet these conditions ceded the land back to the Crown, making it available to another settler. In Northeastern Ontario, Manitoulin Island and the North Channel area of Lake Huron led in terms of agricultural development in the 1870's. Here too, agricultural development followed the spread of lumbering. Between 1871 and 1881, for example, there was an eightfold increase in the number of acres under cultivation along the north Shore, and the number of farmers had increased to approximately nine hundred.Farm-lot timber was usually the settler's first cash crop. As the land was cleared, the timber was cut and sold to the nearest lumber company. If the farmer lived close enough to the saw mill he would build his home and barn from boards and planks from the mill. Otherwise construction would be from the logs as they were cut. Smaller out buildings and fences were usually of pole or log construction. The bush lot that remained was an important source of building materials and fuel for the farmer. Once the timber had been removed the stumps could be removed either by digging them up or by burning the area, although most farmers burned over the area. Burning was the easier and therefore the most frequently used method. Unfortunately burning would often destroy the topsoil and its nutrients. If the topsoil was too thin burning would render it unsuitable for agriculture. As the land was cleared, the settler would construct his home and would invariably start a small kitchen garden for the family's use. Other debris would have to be cleared and stones would be removed by hand in order that the fields could be ploughed. Draft horses were utilized to pull a single mouldboard plough in the field, although oxen, more sure-footed on the rough terrain were sometimes used. Many settlers came with meager means, perhaps and axe or a saw, but lacked basic equipment such as plows, wagons, and draft animals to haul timber, pull stumps, and break ground. Many pioneer settlers had to farm on a part-time basis, working the rest of the time on the railroad, or selling pulp wood or even hiring themselves out as hands to other farmers. Added to these hardships were other problems. The short growing season often resulted in crops being destroyed by early frosts or wet harvests. Fires to burn brush and clear land sometimes went out of control, destroying the towns, farms and forests in their way.   These farms were usually isolated from one another and roads were but trails at first, traveled on foot or horseback. Wagons or buggies could only be used in the dry season and sleighs were used in the winter. Winter snows or mud often caused families to be isolated for long periods of time. Loneliness was one of the greatest burdens to bear at that time. It could be mitigated only by the incessant need of struggling to improve the land and building, raise the crops, and care for the stock. Mutual help at barn-raisings and other work provided an opportunity for social life. Crops grown in the area included clover and timothy hay, oats, barley, wheat, and peas. Root crops, such as turnips, rutabagas, mangles and carrots were grown, although some would be used as food for livestock. Many farms would have two gardens. The kitchen garden, after it was ploughed and planted, became the responsibility of the women. The larger field gardens of potatoes, turnips, and subsistence vegetables were customarily prepared by the men and maintained by the whole family. Many farmers planted wheat, which grew well in the humus of the arboreal forest but quickly depleted the rich, yet thin soil. Sheep were an important part of the mixed-farm economy. The lambs were sold and the wool went to mills for processing. Poultry flocks were kept for domestic use since there was no major commercial egg or poultry production during the settlement period. .