First Nations Women The relationships between fur traders and First Nations or mixed-blood women were called, "a la facon du pays" or "according to the custom of the country". The Hudson's Bay Company at first discouraged relationships between their employees and First Nations women. "The earlier period was dominated by the Company's refusal to allow servants to take their wives to the Bay, and by its equally firm if paradoxical insistence that they should have no contact there with Indian women" (Williams, 1983).

Country Wives and Other Fur Trade Women Catherine Birston Singing Girl Eliza Waugh Sophia Lolo

B.C. Archives, Add. MSS.220

The company eventually realized that these unions were inevitable, because of the absence of European women and the isolation of the fur trading posts. The company began to make rules regarding relationships, and here is just one example at the right (click on it to see a larger image). These marriages were conducted without clergy present and were according to "the custom of the country." 

By the First Nations traditions, there would be an agreement between the girl's family and the man who wanted to marry her. There was usually an exchange of gifts to celebrate the agreement. The Hudson's Bay Company also acknowledged that these alliances helped to cement relationships between the fur traders and the natives who supplied the furs to the posts. By native customs, the fur trader would become, through marriage, a member of the family so would gain the loyalty of the woman's extended family when it to came to trading furs and supplying game.

When the Hudson's Bay Company moved into New Caledonia (British Columbia), Governor Simpson recommended that his officers make such alliances with important First Nations families because it was "the best security we can have of the goodwill of the natives" (E. E. Rich, ed., Simpson's Athabasca Journal and Report, 1820–21 quoted from Van Kirk, 1980). In exchange for their daughters, the First Nations family would have access to supplies from the fort. Although this sounds like a solely financial arrangement, some of these relationships were happy and long-lasting. Hudson's Bay Company policy at this time was that a man was not legally bound to these relationships when he moved to another post, but was expected to maintain the woman and her children until she was "under the protection of another," or in a new relationship with another man. This was the case with Tod's first wife, Catherine Birston, although he did continue to support his son, James. This practice was compatible with the Cree custom that either partner could leave the relationship if they were not happy.

In many cases, a woman who was used to surviving in difficult circumstances was invaluable to her mate. Particularly important were her knowledge of finding and preserving food, and her skills at making clothes, especially moccasins. An example of this is Tod's 'singing girl' from McLeod Lake, whom he depended on for survival. The women also made snowshoes, repaired birch bark canoes, and helped as interpreters, guides and negotiators.

Mixed-Blood Women

As these marriages produced many mixed-blood children, these children of fur traders and their First Nations wives became increasingly important at the factories (fur trading posts). The young men began to take over tasks formerly done by apprentices from Britain and the girls became the country wives of the new company men. Young mixed-blood women would learn the important native skills from their mothers and some European customs from their fathers; they were often taught Christian values and how to read and write. This made them more attractive to prospective husbands and most new traders now married mixed-blood women rather than full-blooded Native women. John Tod's first country wife, Catherine Birston, was the daughter of a fur trader and a First Nations woman.

"With her dual heritage, the mixed-blood woman possessed the ideal qualifications for a fur trader's wife: acclimatized to life in the west and familiar with Indian ways, she could also make a successful adoption to white culture" (Van Kirk, 1980).

detail-B.C. Archives,

While a young newlywed, Amelia Douglas, wife of Governor James Douglas, saved her husband's life. With her bravery and her knowledge of Carrier customs, she was able to save him when he was attacked by angry Carrier Indians (Van Kirk, 1980). There are many other examples of Native and mixed-blood women saving the lives of fur traders.

Because these mixed-race women were used to living in fur trading posts and living as the wives of Europeans, they couldn't return to Indian ways; so they were afraid of abandonment by their husbands when white women arrived.

European Women

The status of mixed-blood women as desirable wives was threatened by the arrival of women from Europe. A few fur traders abandoned their country wives and children to find a European (white) wife. With the establishment of settlements such as the Red River colony, it was now possible for the fur traders to marry white women and have a place to retire with them. While many fur traders married the daughters of these colonists, others found wives in the schoolteachers that came over to teach the settlers' children. Some others, such as Governor Simpson and George McTavish, went to Britain to marry, and brought their new wives back to Canada. Simpson and McTavish did so without any warning to their country wives of many years.

B.C. Archives, pdp03242

It is unclear whether John Tod had marriage in mind when he went home on furlough (vacation) in 1834. He left his 'singing girl' at McLeod Lake and headed east to board a ship for Britain. During the voyage he met Eliza Waugh, a Welsh woman, whom he married while in England. He then returned to Rupert's Land (Canada) with her; but she had psychological problems and returned home to Britain the next spring.

The newly arrived missionaries may have added to the problem of wife abandonment by not recognizing the validity of country marriages. Most fur traders, though, were loyal and devoted to their long-time country wives and their children, and didn't see any need to formalize a country marriage which they already thought of as real. Some stayed with their wives at the detriment of their careers, because Governor Simpson didn't think a Native or mixed-blood wife was suitable for a high-ranking officer. Many men were denied promotions or sent to remote forts. Many fur traders did allow the clergy to formalize their relationships, but continued to endure racist comments about their wives. There was a jealousy between white and mixed-blood women, each feeling their place in society was threatened by the other. James Douglas married his wife Amelia in a church ceremony, which must have given her a sense of security after what happened to her mother.

B.C. Archives, A-01483

John Tod didn't "officially" marry his country wife of 20 years, Sophia Lolo, until they felt pressured to do so  by the impending wedding of their daughter Mary.

Many children of fur traders were disinherited from the wills of their fathers because their parents had never been officially married. In 1867, however, a court would decide that these "Country Marriages" were legal. See the story of Amelia Douglas' mother, Suzanne Connolly, for an example. Some weren't so lucky, however, because other judges did not recognize these marriages as legal.

Private collection

Most of the european women were ill-equipped to handle the tough life in the new country. They were very lonely and isolated in forts where there were very few white women, and most wouldn't become friends with mixed-blood or First Nations women because they felt natives were too uncivilized. Many became ill or depressed and had to return home to Britain. These were mostly the pampered, wealthy "ladies" (such as Frances Simpson), but some European women (mostly from the working class) were stronger and adapted well to pioneer life. Governor Simpson once again changed his views and said,

“Imported wives, fancy themselves such great ladies that there is no possibility of pleasing them” and they affect “a supercilious air of superiority over the native wives and daughters of gentlemen in the country" (The Beaver, 1983, 75).

It then again became fashionable for incoming Englishmen to marry mixed-blood women, especially the educated girls with European manners. Racism would endure though, and many families denied their First Nations ancestry. We must remember the important role that First Nations and mixed-race women played in the formation of our new country, Canada.

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