The Path to Confederation (1791-1867)

The Canada Act of 1791 The War of 1812 and its Consequences Rebellion in the Canadas and the Act of Union Economic Development in United Canada Confederation Selected Bibliography

From 1791 to 1867 many significant changes occurred in British North America. The region became industrialized, the population grew and important social institutions were developed. The British colonies also became increasingly democratic and independent. In 1867 the entire British North America was united to form the Dominion of Canada.

The act established Upper and Lower Canada, new property laws and an elective council.

Many people immigrated to Upper Canada from 1791.

During and after the American Revolution many Natives, Americans, Loyalists and black slaves migrated to British Canada. These immigrants were dissatisfied with the legal system existing in the colony which was mainly based on the French majority (Seigniorial system and the Catholic Church while many of the new migrants were Protestant and accustomed to Townships land tenure). In order to meet the demands of the new immigrants and provide them land, Britain implemented the Canada Act of 1791. The act made three significant changes to British Canada:

• The colonial borders were re-established;
• French property laws were replaced with a free hold tenure system;
• Some power was given to regional elective councils that were established.

The land surrounding the Great Lakes St. Lawrence water basin was divided into two parts, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Upper Canada was located along the Great Lakes, West of the Ottawa River (in the current province of Ontario). Lower Canada was centered on the St. Lawrence River, East of the Ottawa River (in Quebec). Britain encouraged the new immigrants to settle in Upper Canada. Prior to 1791, the Upper Canada area was mainly Native territory.

From 1776 to 1815 many immigrants came to Upper Canada, of which a significant share were Loyalists. It is estimated that between 80,000 to 100,000 Loyalists left the United States after the American Revolution. About 45,000 went to British North American maritime colonies and about 9,500 came to Quebec province (which included Ontario at that time). Approximately 7,500 settled on the territory that would become Upper Canada in 1791. The new immigrants were given free land, clothes, tools, shelter and seeds. Most of the settlers were farmers and lived in log cabins on land that bordered the Great Lakes. The St. Lawrence was the only efficient settlement road to reach new regions. In 1812 about 75,000 Europeans had settled in Upper Canada.

The war of 1812 was mainly fought on the St. Lawrence water system.

Many social and economic changes occurred in the Canadas.

The War of 1812 occurred as a result of increasing conflict between the United States and British Canada, although somewhat related to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. During the war American forces attacked several important settlements along the Great Lakes St. Lawrence water system. The center of American attack was Upper Canada and their objective was to annex the western peninsula of Upper Canada and thus gain complete control over Lake Erie and Lake Huron.

Another important objective was to move north from Lake Champlain and capture Montreal, thus cutting British supply lines to Upper Canada and securing the region. Since waterways were almost the only lines of communication, the St. Lawrence and the Great Links were sites of naval battles. The war resulted in no major geographical changes except that a definitive Canada / US international border was drawn along the St. Lawrence, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie and Lake Huron. However, it generated an anti-American attitude in Canada and foster unity among the people of Upper Canada. This war was the last armed conflict of significance between Canada and the United States,

From 1815 to 1840 many significant economic and social changes occurred in Upper and Lower Canada: schools, hospitals, banks and canals were built, and new industries developed. Timber exploitation and wheat crops were the main source of livelihood in Canada. The important timber resources were the pine and oak forests of Upper Canada. The transportation industry also grew. Two large canals were built to by-pass the Lachine rapids and Niagara Falls:

• The Welland Canal built in 1829 joins Lake Erie to Lake Ontario;
• The Rideau Canal completed in 1832 extends from Kingston to Ottawa.

These canals allowed boats to transport goods along the St. Lawrence water system. Several stage coach companies and textile industries were also established in the 1800s. Upper Canada experienced considerable growth and Montreal was able to benefit from this expansion by establishing itself as a transfer and distribution center because it controlled access to the Great Lakes.

Canadians wanted greater independence from Britain.

In 1837 and 1838 there was rebellion in the Canadas. The colonies wanted greater independence from Britain and some battles occurred in the St. Lawrence region, some were only skirmishes but others were rather heavy (St. Eustache). During this period several important Canadian political parties were formed. In response to the Canadian rebellion Britain issued the Durham Report in 1839. The report recommended increased colonial self government, the union of the two Canadas, that Kingston be made capital of Canada, that English is established as Canada's official language and that an elected assembly of 84 officials was to be created. The report also discussed the eventual union of all British North America.

Following the recommendations of the Durham report the Act of Union was established in 1840. The act joined Upper and Lower Canada as Canada East and Canada West and gave greater power to the colonies. In 1848, against Durham's recommendations, the act was amended to make Canada a bilingual colony. Ottawa (then called Bytown) was made the capital of United Canada in 1865.

Several economic changes occurred in the St. Lawrence region in the mid nineteen century. Canada began to trade with the United States.

From 1840 to 1864 great economic changes occurred in the United Canada. In 1846, Britain entered into a free trade agreement, ending its preference for colonial exports. This resulted in of the British mercantilism system and economic recession in Canada around 1850. Other solutions would thus have to be found. In 1854, Canada and the United States of America established a trade agreement. The agreement increased intercontinental trade in North America.

The mid nineteen century was also a period of economic restructuring in the St. Lawrence region as the economy gradually shifted from its traditional exports of timber and fur to sawn timber, grain and other commodities. This changed the position of several ports, notably Quebec which declined and was overtaken by Montreal towards 1850. This event is notably linked to the introduction of the steamship and dredging where Montreal was better placed to serve the North American hinterland. Also, the construction of the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 undermined the position of Quebec because several inland centers became far more accessible.

The key elements in the economic development of this period were significant improvements in transportation as well as strong European demand. Ports were constructed and enlarged, as well as waterways enabling safer navigation. In the 1850s several Canadian railways were built. Railways were extremely important to transport goods throughout North America.

The Dominion of Canada was created in 1867.

In the 1860s, the United States was plunged into a civil war. During this period, Britain and her colonies feared the attack of Americans who wanted to capture British North America. Also in the 1860s, there was increased discussion of democracy and independence from Britain. In 1864, in order to secure her land, Britain pushed to unite Canada and the Maritime colonies. United Canada and the Maritime colonies agreed with some reluctance to establish a larger North American Union with a central government. The union occurred in 1867 creating the Dominion of Canada. The event was called Confederation.

One of the main consequence of the Confederation is that Canada had now a comprehensive policy of providing a transport system across the new nation. This included the construction of a transcontinental railway system, but also of several canals along the St. Lawrence, for the sake of national unity.

• Bolotenko, G. (1988). A future defined: Canada from 1849 to 1873. Ottawa: National Archives of Canada.
• Francis, D., Jone, R., and Smith, B. (1992). Origins: Canadian history to confederation. Toronto: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston of Canada Limited.
• Martin, G. (1995). Britain and the origins of Canadian confederation, 1837-67. Vancouver: UBC Press.
• Wilson, B. G. (1988). Colonial identities: Canada from 1760-1815. Ottawa: National Archives of Canada.

Related Web Sites

The Canada Act Map of Upper and Lower Canada Maps of Upper Canada The War of 1812 French Quebec in the Canal Era The Constitution Act, 1867 Canada Constitutional Development Confederation